Rita A McNamara | Victoria University of Wellington (original) (raw)

Papers by Rita A McNamara

Evolutionary Human Sciences

Psychological and cultural evolutionary accounts of human sociality propose that beliefs in punit... more Psychological and cultural evolutionary accounts of human sociality propose that beliefs in punitive and monitoring gods that care about moral norms facilitate cooperation. While there is some evidence to suggest that belief in supernatural punishment and monitoring generally induce cooperative behaviour, the effect of a deity's explicitly postulated moral concerns on cooperation remains unclear. Here, we report a pre-registered set of analyses to assess whether perceiving a locally relevant deity as moralistic predicts cooperative play in two permutations of two economic games using data from up to 15 diverse field sites. Across games, results suggest that gods’ moral concerns do not play a direct, cross-culturally reliable role in motivating cooperative behaviour. The study contributes substantially to the current literature by testing a central hypothesis in the evolutionary and cognitive science of religion with a large and culturally diverse dataset using behavioural and et...

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

To address claims of human exceptionalism, we determine where humans fit within the greater mamma... more To address claims of human exceptionalism, we determine where humans fit within the greater mammalian distribution of reproductive inequality. We show that humans exhibit lower reproductive skew (i.e., inequality in the number of surviving offspring) among males and smaller sex differences in reproductive skew than most other mammals, while nevertheless falling within the mammalian range. Additionally, female reproductive skew is higher in polygynous human populations than in polygynous nonhumans mammals on average. This patterning of skew can be attributed in part to the prevalence of monogamy in humans compared to the predominance of polygyny in nonhuman mammals, to the limited degree of polygyny in the human societies that practice it, and to the importance of unequally held rival resources to women’s fitness. The muted reproductive inequality observed in humans appears to be linked to several unusual characteristics of our species—including high levels of cooperation among males...

Religions

This paper explores dimensions of culture and practice that shape the cognitive pathways leading ... more This paper explores dimensions of culture and practice that shape the cognitive pathways leading to different beliefs about God(s)’ mind(s). Varying socio-ecological sources of insecurity are linked to types and modes of cognitive processing, which in turn promote different constellations of beliefs about supernatural agents dubbed the heuristic and non-heuristic models of God(s)’ mind(s). The heuristic model is suggested to take prominence when relatively few cognitive resources are available to devote to thinking about God(s)’ mind(s); these conceptions of God(s) should be shaped by the socio-ecological pressures believers face. Conversely, when cognitive resources are available, differences in modes of processing (experiential-intuitive vs. analytical-rational) lead to different mystical and theological/philosophical models of God’s mind as a product of more deliberate, effortful processing. By linking beliefs to socio-ecological influences, this paper suggests phenomenological e...

Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2018

Boyer & Petersen (B&P) lay out an evolutionarily grounded framework to produce concrete, testable... more Boyer & Petersen (B&P) lay out an evolutionarily grounded framework to produce concrete, testable predictions about economic phenomena. We commend this step forward, but suggest the framework requires more consideration of cultural contexts that provide necessary input for cognitive systems to operate on. We discuss the role of culture when examining both evolved cognitive systems and social exchange contexts.

Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2019

In Cognitive Gadgets, Heyes seeks to unite evolutionary psychology with cultural evolutionary the... more In Cognitive Gadgets, Heyes seeks to unite evolutionary psychology with cultural evolutionary theory. Although we applaud this unifying effort, we find it falls short of considering how culture itself evolves to produce indigenous psychologies fitted to particular environments. We focus on mentalizing and autobiographical memory as examples of how socialization practices embedded within culture build cognitive adaptations.

Religion, Brain & Behavior

Religion, Brain & Behavior, 2022

The existential security hypothesis predicts that in the absence of more successful secular insti... more The existential security hypothesis predicts that in the absence of more successful secular institutions, people will be attracted to religion when they are materially insecure. Most assessments, however, employ data sampled at a state-level with a focus on world religions. Using individual-level data collected in societies of varied community sizes with diverse religious traditions including animism, shamanism, polytheism, and monotheism, we conducted a systematic cross-cultural test (N = 1820; 14 societies) of the relationship between material insecurity (indexed by food insecurity) and religious commitment (indexed by both beliefs and practices). Moreover, we examined the relationship between material security and individuals’ commitment to two types of deities (moralistic and local), thus providing the first simultaneous test of the existential security hypothesis across co-existing traditions. Our results indicate that while material insecurity is associated with greater commit...

Evolutionary Human Sciences, 2021

Most research on cognition behind religious belief assumes that understanding of other minds is c... more Most research on cognition behind religious belief assumes that understanding of other minds is culturally uniform and follows the Western model of mind, which posits that (a) others' thoughts can be known and (b) action is best explained by mental state inference. This is potentially problematic if, as a growing body of evidence suggests, other populations view minds differently. We recruit Indigenous iTaukei Fijians who hold (a) a model of mind that discourages mental state inference and (b) co-existing Christian (Western) and traditional supernatural agent beliefs. Study 1 (N = 108), uses free-listing to examine how Western and local models of mind relate to beliefs. The Christian God cares about internal states and traits (aligning with the Western model of mind). Study 2 tests whether evoking God triggers intent focus in moral reasoning. Instead, God appears to enforce cultural models of mind in iTaukei (N = 151) and North Americans (N = 561). Expected divine judgement mirrors human judgement; iTaukei (N = 90) expect God to emphasise outcome, while Indo-Fijians (N = 219) and North Americans (N = 412) expect God to emphasise intent. When reminded to think about thoughts, iTaukei (N = 72) expect God to judge outcomes less harshly. Results suggest cultural/cognitive co-evolution: introduced cultural forms can spread new cognitive approaches, while Indigenous beliefs can persist as a reflection of local institutions.

The emergence of large-scale cooperation during the Holocene remains a central problem in the evo... more The emergence of large-scale cooperation during the Holocene remains a central problem in the evolutionary literature. One hypothesis points to culturally evolved beliefs in punishing, interventionist gods that facilitate the extension of cooperative behaviour toward geographically distant co-religionists. Furthermore, another hypothesis points to such mechanisms being constrained to the religious ingroup, possibly at the expense of religious outgroups. To test these hypotheses, we administered two behavioural experiments and a set of interviews to a sample of 2228 participants from 15 diverse populations. These populations included foragers, pastoralists, horticulturalists, and wage labourers, practicing Buddhism, Christianity, and Hinduism, but also forms of animism and ancestor worship. Using the Random Allocation Game (RAG) and the Dictator Game (DG) in which individuals allocated money between themselves, local and geographically distant co-religionists, and religious outgroups...

Advances in Religion, Cognitive Science, and Experimental Philosophy

How do beliefs about gods vary across populations, and what accounts for this variation? We argue... more How do beliefs about gods vary across populations, and what accounts for this variation? We argue that appeals to gods generally reflect prominent features of local social ecologies. We first draw from a synthesis of theoretical, experimental, and ethnographic evidence to delineate a set of predictive criteria for the kinds of contexts with which religious beliefs and behaviors will be associated. To evaluate these criteria, we examine the content of freely-listed data about gods’ concerns collected from individuals across eight diverse field sites and contextualize these beliefs in their respective cultural milieus. In our analysis, we find that local deities’ concerns point to costly threats to local coordination and cooperation. We conclude with a discussion of how alternative approaches to religious beliefs and appeals fare in light of our results and close by considering some key implications for the cognitive and evolutionary sciences of religion.

Religion, Brain & Behavior, 2017

Researchers explain cultural phenomena ranging from cognitive biases to widespread religious beli... more Researchers explain cultural phenomena ranging from cognitive biases to widespread religious beliefs by assuming intuitive dualism: humans imagine minds and bodies as distinct and separable. We examine dualist intuition development across two societies that differ in normative focus on thinking about minds. We use a new method that measures people's tendency to interpret ambiguous stimuli using mind-body dualist thinking. We recruited 180 Canadian children (2-10 yrs) along with 42 Indigenous iTaukei Fijian children (5-13 yrs) and 38 Indigenous iTaukei Fijian adults (27-79 yrs) from a remote island community. Participants tracked a named character within ambiguous animations that could be interpreted as a mind-body switch. Animations vary "agency cues" that participants might rely on for dualistic interpretations. Results indicate early emerging dualistic inclinations across populations and reliance on "agency cues" of body proximity and appearance of eyes. "Agency cues" increase dualist interpretations from 10% to 70%, though eyes mattered more for Westernized participants. Overall, statistical models positing that dualist interpretations "emerge early and everywhere" fit our data better than models positing that dualism "develops gradually with exposure to Western cultural traditions." Fijian participants, who normatively avoid focus on minds, offered even more dualistic interpretations when they had less Western cultural exposure (via formal education).

Evolution and Human Behavior, 2018

Does moral culture contribute to the evolution of cooperation? Here, we examine individuals' and ... more Does moral culture contribute to the evolution of cooperation? Here, we examine individuals' and communities' models of what it means to be good and bad and how they correspond to corollary behavior across a variety of socioecological contexts. Our sample includes over 600 people from eight different field sites that include foragers, horticulturalists, herders, and the fully market-reliant. We first examine the universals and particulars of explicit moral models. We then use these moral models to assess their role in the outcome of an economic experiment designed to detect systematic, dishonest rule-breaking favoritism. We show that individuals are slightly more inclined to play by the rules when their moral models include the task-relevant virtues of "honesty" and "dishonesty." We also find that religious beliefs are better predictors of honest play than these virtues. The predictive power of these values' and beliefs' local prevalence, however, remains inconclusive. In summary, we find that religious beliefs and moral models may help promote honest behavior that may widen the breadth of human cooperation.

Cognition, 2019

Mental state reasoning has been theorized as a core feature of how we navigate our social worlds,... more Mental state reasoning has been theorized as a core feature of how we navigate our social worlds, and as especially vital to moral reasoning. Judgments of moral wrongdoing and punishworthiness often hinge upon evaluations of the perpetrator's mental states. In two studies, we examine how differences in cultural conceptions about how one should think about others' minds influence the relative importance of intent vs. outcome in moral judgments. We recruit participation from three societies, differing in emphasis on mental state reasoning: Indigenous iTaukei Fijians from Yasawa Island (Yasawans) who normatively avoid mental state inference in favor of focus on relationships and consequences of actions; Indo-Fijians who normatively emphasize relationships but do not avoid mental state inference; and North Americans who emphasize individual autonomy and interpreting others' behaviors as the direct result of mental states. In study 1, Yasawan participants placed more emphasis on outcome than Indo-Fijians or North Americans by judging accidents more harshly than failed attempts. Study 2 tested whether underlying differences in the salience of mental states drives study 1 effects by inducing Yasawan and North American participants to think about thoughts vs. actions before making moral judgments. When induced to think about thoughts, Yasawan participants shifted to judge failed attempts more harshly than accidents. Results suggest that culturally-transmitted concepts about how to interpret the social world shape patterns of moral judgments, possibly via mental state inference.

American Journal of Community Psychology, 2018

Highlights • Examples of work toward decolonizing via indigenizing through work with Pacific peop... more Highlights • Examples of work toward decolonizing via indigenizing through work with Pacific peoples. • Examples of teaching and research practice in Aotearoa New Zealand and Turtle Island Canada. • Suggest pedagogy challenging colonial narratives, responsive research, and indigenous student support.

PloS one, 2018

Researchers have recently proposed that "moralistic" religions-those with moral doctrin... more Researchers have recently proposed that "moralistic" religions-those with moral doctrines, moralistic supernatural punishment, and lower emphasis on ritual-emerged as an effect of greater wealth and material security. One interpretation appeals to life history theory, predicting that individuals with "slow life history" strategies will be more attracted to moralistic traditions as a means to judge those with "fast life history" strategies. As we had reservations about the validity of this application of life history theory, we tested these predictions with a data set consisting of 592 individuals from eight diverse societies. Our sample includes individuals from a wide range of traditions, including world religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity, but also local traditions rooted in beliefs in animism, ancestor worship, and worship of spirits associated with nature. We first test for the presence of associations between material security, ye...

Religion, Brain & Behavior, 2017

We investigate how religious beliefs in an omnipotent, omniscient God vs. locally concerned, more... more We investigate how religious beliefs in an omnipotent, omniscient God vs. locally concerned, more limited gods impact prosocial behavior at varying degrees of social distance. We recruit participants from traditional villages on Yasawa Island, Fiji. Yasawan religion includes belief in both universalistic Christian teachings and local deified ancestor spirits (Kalouvu). Yasawans' contrasting reliance on local, kin-based social networks and anonymous economic market exchange provides an interesting test case for how religious beliefs interact with wider social structures. We use an experimental priming procedure to test whether reminders of Christian vs. traditional imagery, as compared to neutral, influence local or self-favoritism in the random allocation game (RAG). We find that traditional imagery caused increased localbut not selffavoritism. Priming effects depended upon perceived resource uncertainty: participants primed with Christian imagery were most likely to allocate to distant co-religionists when they were least worried about resources. However, more uncertainty predicted higher local RAG allocations, further suggesting the importance of local social networks for managing such uncertainty. We further find additional support for previous findings that prosocial effects of punitive supernatural agent beliefs depend upon uncertainty. These findings further emphasize the interplay between contents of cultural forms like religious belief and socioecological context.

Scientific Data, 2016

A considerable body of research cross-culturally examines the evolution of religious traditions, ... more A considerable body of research cross-culturally examines the evolution of religious traditions, beliefs and behaviors. The bulk of this research, however, draws from coded qualitative ethnographies rather than from standardized methods specifically designed to measure religious beliefs and behaviors. Psychological data sets that examine religious thought and behavior in controlled conditions tend to be disproportionately sampled from student populations. Some cross-national databases employ standardized methods at the individual level, but are primarily focused on fully market integrated, state-level societies. The Evolution of Religion and Morality Project sought to generate a data set that systematically probed individual level measures sampling across a wider range of human populations. The set includes data from behavioral economic experiments and detailed surveys of demographics, religious beliefs and practices, material security, and intergroup perceptions. This paper describes the methods and variables, briefly introduces the sites and sampling techniques, notes inconsistencies across sites, and provides some basic reporting for the data set.

Evolution and Human Behavior, 2017

Genes shared through common ancestry are among the oldest social bonds. Despite these ancient roo... more Genes shared through common ancestry are among the oldest social bonds. Despite these ancient roots, humans often co-opt the psychology of genetic relatedness and extend it to genetically unrelated others through culturally-acquired kinship systems. We investigate how genealogical relatedness and kinship norms might mutually support or oppose each other within a known kin network in Yasawa, Fiji. Yasawans' reliance on intensive, kin-based cooperation for daily life makes Yasawan kinship an interesting test case to compare the effects of genealogy and kinship norms. Confirming qualitative ethnographic claims, we find that Yasawan kin terms can be described in two dimensions of respect/ closeness and joking/ authority. Individual players use different strategies for genealogical relatives and non-relatives by making economic game choices that are increasingly beneficial to partners who share a higher percentage of genes through common ancestry. However, pairs of players are most successful in coordinating their game choices despite conflicting self-interests based upon kinship norms relevant to hierarchy. Thus, while genealogical relatedness may boost generosity, the extra behavioral structuring from kinship norms facilitates more productive but difficult coordinated action even when communication is not possible.

Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2016

In our response to the 27 commentaries, we refine the theoretical claims, clarify several misconc... more In our response to the 27 commentaries, we refine the theoretical claims, clarify several misconceptions of our framework, and explore substantial disagreements. In doing so, we (1) show that our framework accommodates multiple historical scenarios; (2) debate the historical evidence, particularly about “pre-Axial” religions; (3) offer important details about cultural evolutionary theory; (4) clarify the termprosociality;and (4) discuss proximal mechanisms. We review many interesting extensions, amplifications, and qualifications of our approach made by the commentators.

Evolutionary Human Sciences

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

Religions

Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2018

Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2019

Religion, Brain & Behavior

Religion, Brain & Behavior, 2022

Evolutionary Human Sciences, 2021

Advances in Religion, Cognitive Science, and Experimental Philosophy

Religion, Brain & Behavior, 2017

Evolution and Human Behavior, 2018

Cognition, 2019

American Journal of Community Psychology, 2018

PloS one, 2018

Religion, Brain & Behavior, 2017

Scientific Data, 2016

Evolution and Human Behavior, 2017

Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2016

Does moral culture contribute to the evolution of cooperation? Here, we examine individuals' and ... more Does moral culture contribute to the evolution of cooperation? Here, we examine individuals' and communities' models of what it means to be good and bad and how they correspond to corollary behavior across a variety of socioecological contexts. Our sample includes over 600 people from eight different field sites that include for-agers, horticulturalists, herders, and the fully market-reliant. We first examine the universals and particulars of explicit moral models. We then use these moral models to assess their role in the outcome of an economic experiment designed to detect systematic, dishonest rule-breaking favoritism. We show that individuals are slightly more inclined to play by the rules when their moral models include the task-relevant virtues of " honesty " and " dishonesty. " We also find that religious beliefs are better predictors of honest play than these virtues. The predictive power of these values' and beliefs' local prevalence, however, remains inconclusive. In summary, we find that religious beliefs and moral models may help promote honest behavior that may widen the breadth of human cooperation.

Researchers explain cultural phenomena ranging from cognitive biases to widespread religious beli... more Researchers explain cultural phenomena ranging from cognitive biases to widespread religious beliefs by assuming intuitive dualism: humans imagine minds and bodies as distinct and separable. We examine dualist intuition development across two societies that differ in normative focus on thinking about minds. We use a new method that measures people’s tendency to interpret ambiguous stimuli using mind-body dualist thinking. We recruited 180 Canadian children (2–10 yrs) along with 42 Indigenous iTaukei Fijian children (5–13 yrs) and 38 Indigenous iTaukei Fijian adults (27–79 yrs) from a remote island community. Participants tracked a named character within ambiguous animations that could be interpreted as a mind-body switch. Animations vary “agency cues” that participants might rely on for dualistic interpretations. Results indicate early emerging dualistic inclinations across populations and reliance on “agency cues” of body proximity and appearance of eyes. “Agency cues” increase dualist interpretations from 10% to 70%, though eyes mattered more for Westernized participants. Overall, statistical models positing that dualist interpretations “emerge early and everywhere” fit our data better than models positing that dualism “develops gradually with exposure to Western cultural traditions.” Fijian participants, who normatively avoid focus on minds, offered even more dualistic interpretations when they had less Western cultural exposure (via formal education).

We investigate how religious beliefs in an omnipotent, omniscient God vs. locally concerned, more... more We investigate how religious beliefs in an omnipotent, omniscient God vs. locally concerned, more limited gods impact prosocial behavior at varying degrees of social distance. We recruit participants from traditional villages on Yasawa Island, Fiji. Yasawan religion includes belief in both universalistic Christian teachings and local deified ancestor spirits (Kalou-vu). Yasawans’ contrasting reliance on local, kin-based social networks and anonymous economic market exchange provides an interesting test case for how religious beliefs interact with wider social structures. We use an experimental priming procedure to test whether reminders of Christian vs. traditional imagery, as compared to neutral, influence local or self-favoritism in the random allocation game (RAG). We find that traditional imagery caused increased local – but not self – favoritism. Priming effects depended upon perceived resource uncertainty: participants primed with Christian imagery were most likely to allocate to distant co-religionists when they were least worried about resources. However, more uncertainty predicted higher local RAG allocations, further suggesting the importance of local social networks for managing such uncertainty. We further find additional support for previous findings that prosocial effects of punitive supernatural agent beliefs depend upon uncertainty. These findings further emphasize the interplay between contents of cultural forms like religious belief and socioecological context.

Understanding the expansion of human sociality and cooperation beyond kith and kin remains an imp... more Understanding the expansion of human sociality and cooperation beyond kith and kin remains an important evolutionary puzzle. There is likely a complex web of processes including institutions, norms, and practices that contributes to this phenomenon. Considerable evidence suggests that one such process involves certain components of religious systems that may have fostered the expansion of human cooperation in a variety of ways, including both certain forms of rituals and commitment to particular types of gods. Using an experimental economic game, our team specifically tested whether or not individually held mental models of moralistic, punishing, and knowledgeable gods curb biases in favor of the self and the local community, and increase impartiality toward geographically distant anonymous co-religionists. Our sample includes 591 participants from eight diverse societies – iTaukei (indigenous) Fijians who practice both Christianity and ancestor worship, the animist Hadza of Tanzania, Hindu Indo-Fijians, Hindu Mauritians, shamanist-Buddhist Tyvans of southern Siberia, traditional Inland and Christian Coastal Vanuatuans from Tanna, and Christian Brazilians from Pesqueiro. In this article, we present cross-cultural evidence that addresses this question and discuss the implications and limitations of our project. This volume also offers detailed, site-specific reports to provide further contextualization at the local level.

Since the origins of agriculture, the scale of human cooperation and societal complexity has dram... more Since the origins of agriculture, the scale of human cooperation and societal complexity has dramatically expanded. This fact challenges standard evolutionary explanations of prosociality because well-studied mechanisms of cooperation based on genetic relatedness, reciprocity and partner choice falter as people increasingly engage in fleeting transactions with genetically unrelated strangers in large anonymous groups. To explain this rapid expansion of prosociality, researchers have proposed several mechanisms. Here we focus on one key hypothesis: cognitive representations of gods as increasingly knowledgeable and punitive, and who sanction violators of interpersonal social norms, foster and sustain the expansion of cooperation, trust and fairness towards co-religionist strangers. We tested this hypothesis using extensive ethnographic interviews and two behavioural games designed to measure impartial rule-following among people (n = 591, observations = 35,400) from eight diverse communities from around the world: (1) inland Tanna, Vanuatu; (2) coastal Tanna, Vanuatu; (3) Yasawa, Fiji; (4) Lovu, Fiji; (5) Pesqueiro, Brazil; (6) Pointe aux Piments, Mauritius; (7) the Tyva Republic (Siberia), Russia; and (8) Hadzaland, Tanzania. Participants reported adherence to a wide array of world religious traditions including Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as notably diverse local traditions, including animism and ancestor worship. Holding a range of relevant variables constant, the higher participants rated their moralistic gods as punitive and knowledgeable about human thoughts and actions, the more coins they allocated to geographically distant co-religionist strangers relative to both themselves and local co-religionists. Our results support the hypothesis that beliefs in moralistic, punitive and knowing gods increase impartial behaviour towards distant co-religionists, and therefore can contribute to the expansion of prosociality.

There are compelling reasons to expect that representing any active, powerful god or spirit may c... more There are compelling reasons to expect that representing any active, powerful god or spirit may contribute to cooperation. One possible mechanism underlying this effect is a system that infers that spiritual agents are morally concerned. If individuals cognitive represent deities as agents, and if agents are generally conceptualized as having moral concern, a broad tendency to attribute moral concern-a "moralization bias"-to supernatural deities follows. Using data from 2,229 individuals in 15 different field sites, we test for the existence of such a bias. We find that people are indeed more likely than not to indicate that supernatural deities are concerned with punishing immoral behavior in the form of theft, murder, and deceit, an effect that is stable even after holding constant the influence of explicitly moralistic deities. We also find that when deities are not associated with morality, communities socially sanction commitment to them. We posit that the moralization bias of gods' minds is part of a widespread but variable religious phenotype, and a candidate mechanism that contributes to the well-recognized association between religion and social harmony.