A001 (original) (raw)

California Wildlife Habitat Relationships System

California Department of Fish and Game
California Interagency Wildlife Task Group

A001 California Tiger Salamander Ambystoma californiense
Family: Ambystomatidae Order: Caudata Class: Amphibia

Written by: T. Kucera
Reviewed by:
Edited by:

DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE, AND SEASONALITY

The California tiger salamander is most commonly found in annual grass habitat, but also
occurs in grassy understory of valley-foothill hardwood habitats, and uncommonly along stream
courses in valley-foothill riparian habitats. The species occurs from near Petaluma, Sonoma Co.,
east through the Central Valley to Yolo and Sacramento counties and south to Tulare Co., and
from the vicinity of San Francisco Bay south at least to Santa Barbara Co. One isolated
population is known to exist at Gray Lodge Wildlife Management Area, Butte Co. They occur at
elevations up to 1,054 m (3,200 ft) (Shaffer and Fisher 1991, Jennings and Hayes 1994).

SPECIFIC HABITAT REQUIREMENTS

Feeding: Little is known specifically of the food habits of A. californiense. Postmetamorphic
juveniles and adults of the closely related A. tigrinum appear to be "sit-and-wait" predators
(Lindquist and Bachmann 1980), taking earthworms, snails, insects, fish, and even small
mammals (Stebbins 1972). Aquatic larvae feed on littoral, benthic, and planktonic arthropods.
Larvae less than 2 cm (1 in) in length eat zooplankton almost exclusively, while larger individuals
consume zooplankton, amphipods, mollusks, and insect larvae (Dodson and Dodson 1971).

Cover: Adults spend most of the year in subterranean refugia, especially burrows of
California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) and occasionally man-made structures
(Stebbins 1972, Shaffer et al. 1993). During breeding migrations, individuals are sometimes
found under surface objects such as rocks and logs. Postmetamorphic juveniles retreat to
small-mammal burrows after spending a few hours or days in mud cracks near water or tunnels
constructed in soft soil. Aquatic larvae seek cover in turbid water, clumps of vegetation, and
other submerged debris.

Reproduction: Tiger salamanders breed and lay eggs primarily in vernal pools and other
temporary rainwater ponds following relatively warm rains in November to February (Shaffer and
Fisher 1991). They sometimes use permanent human-made ponds if predatory fishes are
absent; streams are rarely used for reproduction. Eggs are laid singly or in clumps on both
submerged and emergent vegetation and on submerged debris in shallow water (Stebbins 1972,
Shaffer and Fisher 1991, Barry and Shaffer 1994, Jennings and Hayes 1994).

Water: Rainfall is important to the formation and maintenance of breeding ponds. Most
surface migrations and other movements by adults are associated with sustained rainfall,
especially at night. In some localities, dispersal of postmetamorphic juveniles from breeding
ponds is not associated with rainfall. In such cases, desiccation can cause significant mortality.
Apparently desiccating individuals aggregate to reduce water loss (Alvarado 1967); A. tigrinum
conserves water by tolerating high blood urea concentrations (Romspert and McClanahan 1981).

Pattern: Prime habitat in California is annual grassland, but seasonal ponds or vernal pools
are crucial to breeding. Permanent ponds or reservoirs are sometimes used as well.

SPECIES LIFE HISTORY

Activity Patterns: Adults exist in subterranean refugia most of the year (Stebbins 1972,
Shaffer and Fisher 1991, Jennings and Hayes 1994). Before and after breeding, they emerge at
night during rains. During breeding, some diurnal activity occurs. In late spring or early summer,
postmetamorphic juveniles disperse from breeding sites at night.

Seasonal Movements/Migration: The first rains of November usually initiate adult migration to
breeding ponds (Stebbins 1972, Shaffer and Fisher 1991, Jennings and Hayes 1994). They
usually stay at the ponds a few days, but some individuals may remain up to several weeks after
breeding is completed. Larvae transform during late spring or early summer, usually by the first
week of July. They disperse from the breeding sites after spending a few hours or days near the
pond margin (Jennings and Hayes 1994).

Home Range: Few movements occur during most of the year. Migrations to and from
breeding ponds occasionally exceed 1,000 m (3,300 ft) (Shaffer and Fisher 1991).

Territory: Not territorial.

Reproduction: Breeding and egg-laying normally occur from December through early
February. Females lay numerous small clusters of eggs, each containing from 1 to over 100
eggs (Stebbins 1972). Individual females may lay more than 1,000 eggs, deposited on both
submerged and emergent vegetation and on submerged debris.

Niche: Larvae may compete with or prey upon other amphibian larvae. Adults are probably
not subject to heavy predation by other species due to their secretive behaviors and the brief
period of activity at breeding ponds. Long (1964) reported a single A. tigrinum in the stomach
contents of a badger (Taxidea taxus). Large numbers of aquatic larvae are taken by wading
birds, particularly herons and egrets. Garter snakes (Thamnophis spp.) also may prey on larvae.
Larvae of California tiger salamanders are rarely found in ponds with predatory fish (Shaffer and
Fisher 1991, Shaffer et al. 1993)

General Comments: The California tiger salamander was given specific status separating it
from other tiger salamanders in western North America because of its consistent differentiation
from them (Jones 1989, Jennings and Hayes 1994). This supports earlier taxonomy identifying
them as a full species (Storer 1925). Introduced fishes in breeding ponds can reduce the
survival of tiger salamander larvae. Even temporary fish introductions are detrimental, as
salamander populations can be eliminated within a few years. Aquatic larvae imported from
other states are transported by fishermen for bait. Therefore, any new locality records should be
viewed with caution.

REFERENCES

Alvarado, R. H. 1967. The significance of grouping on water conservation in Ambystoma.
Copeia 1967: 667-668.
Barry, S. J., and H. B. Shaffer. 1994. The status of the California tiger salamander (Ambystoma
californiense) at Lagunita: a 50-year update. Journal of Herpetology 28:159-164.
Dodson, S. I., and V. E. Dodson. 1971. The diet of Ambystoma tigrinum larvae from western
Colorado. Copeia 1971: 614-624.
Gehlbach, F. R. 1967. Ambystoma tigrinum. Cat. Am. Amphibian and Reptiles 52.1-52.4.
Jennings, M. R., and M. P. Hayes. 1994. Amphibian and reptile species of special concern in
California. Final Report to the California Department of Fish and Game, Inland Fisheries
Division, Rancho Cordova, CA. 225 pp.
Jones, T. R. 1989. The evolution of macrogeographic and microgeographic variation in the tiger
salamander Ambystoma tigrinum (Green). Ph.D. Dissertation, Arizona State University,
Tempe, Arizona.
Lindquist, S. B., and M. D. Bachmann. 1980. Feeding behavior of the tiger salamander,
Ambystoma tigrinum. Herpetologica 36:144-158.
Long, C. 1964. The badger as a natural enemy of Ambystoma tigrinum and Bufo boreas.
Herpetologica 20:144.
Romspert, A. P., and L. L. McClanahan. 1981. Osmoregulation of the terrestrial salamander,
Ambystoma tigrinum, in hypersaline media. Copeia 1981: 400-405.
Shaffer, H. B., and R. Fisher. 1991. Final Report to the California Department of Fish and
Game: California tiger salamander surveys, 1990--Contract (FG9422). California
Department of Fish and Game, Inland Fisheries Division, Rancho Cordova, CA.
Shaffer, H. B., R. N. Fisher, and S. E. Stanley. 1993. Status report: the California tiger
salamander (Ambystoma californiense). Final report to the California Department of Fish
and Game, Inland Fisheries Division, Rancho Cordova California, under Contracts
(FG9422 and 1383).
Stebbins, R. C. 1972. California amphibians and reptiles. Univ. California Press, Berkeley. 152
pp.
Storer, T. I. 1925. A synopsis of the amphibia of California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool.27:1-342.