carnival (original) (raw)
“Mama Dis is Mas”: A Historical Overview of the Trinidad Carnival, 1783 – 1900
CONTENTSIntroduction
Historical Background
Enter the Dragons
From Cannes Brulées to Carnival
The Jamette Carnival
Types of Masquerade
Traditional Carnival Characters
Carnival in the Early 20th Century
Links to Newspaper Articles about Carnival
INTRODUCTION
The Trinidad Carnival is by far the most significant festival in Trinidad and Tobago. It has evolved over the past two centuries from an elegant, exclusive affair to a truly all-inclusive national festival. In order to fully understand the process of acculturation, assimilation and cultural persistence, it is necessary to examine the complex historical, social, cultural and political contexts which gave birth to this national celebration.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
In 1498, Christopher Columbus landed in Trinidad and as was the practice in the so called age of Discovery and Exploration, took possession of the island in the name of the King and Queen of Spain. The island did not have the promise of immense wealth like the other countries in Spain’s Western empire. Trinidad was, therefore, largely ignored for over two hundred and fifty years.
In 1776, out of concern for this state of affairs, the Spanish king issued a Cedula of Population, which opened the island to colonization by the French. A second Cedula followed in 1783. This saw an even larger influx of planters from the French West Indian islands of Martinique, Guadeloupe and Saint Dominigue. Arriving also were Free Coloreds and Africans. The French brought with them their cultural traditions, language, dress, food and customs.
In 1797, Trinidad was captured by the British and was made a crown colony of Great Britain. The British immediately began the process of colonization as they had in Barbados and Jamaica two centuries before.
In this era, the period between Christmas and Lent was marked by great merrymaking and feasting by both the French and English. Historians of the nineteenth century wrote about the balls, fetes champetres and house to house visiting engaged in by the white upper class. It was also the custom of the British to impose martial law during the Christmas season. Military exercises were performed at the start of this martial law.
The Carnival celebrations between 1783 and 1838 were dominated by the white elite. Africans and coloreds (persons of mixed race) were forbidden by law to participate in street festivities. This is not to say that they did not celebrate in their own way in their compounds.
During this period also, there were numerous balls, parties and other entertainment. This gave the Africans some measure of freedom to enjoy themselves and engage in merry making. These festivities, along with the pomp and ceremony involved in imposing martial law, provided the Africans with ideas for some of the earliest masquerades for carnival.
The pre-emancipation carnival saw whites costume themselves as ‘negre jardin’ (field Negroes) and mulatresses. They also reenacted the Cannes Brulees (French for Burning Canes): the practice of rounding up slaves to put out fires in the cane field.
With the emancipation of the slaves in 1838 however, the door was opened for the full participation of the Africans in the Carnival.
ENTER THE DRAGONS
While Emancipation brought freedom for the Africans, it also brought new concerns for the whites. The British were entrenching themselves as the new Colonial power in the West. The French had lost their dominance in society. All the whites were caught up in the problems of labor, low productivity, and financial structures. Therefore, the opportunity was provided for Africans to take over Carnival and embrace it as an expression of their newfound freedom.
In the beginning they celebrated the anniversary of their freedom (August 1)by reenacting scenes of Cannes Brulees. This lasted for about a decade, after which the celebrations were transferred to the pre-Lenten season.
After 1838, Africans participated fully in the carnival activities. They engaged in masking, dancing, stick fighting, mocking whites and reenacting scenes of past enslavement. Whites and coloreds however, ceased their participation in the street festival, thereby bringing an end to an era. The Whites nevertheless, continued their house-to-house visiting.
Martial law was no longer enforced and, consequently, there were no military type activities.
FROM CANNES BRULEES TO CARNIVAL
Africans were unperturbed by the preoccupations of whites and coloreds and proceeded to celebrate with gay abandon. The Africans introduced their own musical instruments and dance movements. The drum replaced the fiddle, the poui stick dethroned the sword, while the nut and minard gave way to the Kalenda and Bamboula. The vigor and vibrancy of the African masquerade, the militaristic nature of the Kellenda dance and the mutilancy of the stick fighting rituals, were frowned upon by the ruling class. 
The stick fighters were organized into bands representing different social groups. They were lead by a lead singer called a chantuelle or chanteuse, whose duty it was to egg on the fighters. The chantuelle was supported by a chorus of women. The purpose of the singing was to divide the opponent in song. These activities were known as Cannes Brulees and they preceded the street carnival of Monday and Tuesday.
The torchbearers, carrying flambeaux, led the march. They were followed by the batonnieres or stick fighters, then came the king and queen and royal attendants – body of supporters, substitute stick men, paraders, chanteuse,lead band. They all marched to kalenda songs and calypsoes, accompanied by horns, conch shells, rattles and skin drums. Cannes Brulees marked the beginning of the organized carnival bands.
Cannes Bruleés
The most intense activity of the Africans on Carnival days was the Cannes Bruleés (French for Burnt Canes), comprising songs, dances and stick fights. Cannes Bruleés had its genesis during slavery. Whenever a fire broke out in the cane fields, the slaves on the surrounding properties were rounded up and marched to the spot, to the accompaniment of horns and shells. The gangs were followed by the drivers cracking their whips and urging them, with cries and blows, to harvest the cane before it was burnt. This event became known as the Cannes Bruleés – Later called Canboulay. After emancipation the slaves commemorated this event on 1st August, as a symbol of the change in their status. Later the date was changed to midnight carnival Sunday. This was, in essence the beginning of the Africans’ Kalenda or Carnival.
The Kalenda/Stickfight
The Calinda, a stick dance of probably African origin was a popular form of entertainment for male slaves. It is an agile and dexterous dance performed to drums and chants while the dancers engage in mock combat with their sticks (bois). In the second half of the 19th century Canboulay and stick fights dominated the Carnival. The main activity in the Cannes Bruleé was the stick- fight. The term Kalenda emerged as a general term for the stickfight, the dance, the songs and other performances that accompanied it. The stick-fight involved two persons at a time with sticks three and a half to four feet long, who would Karay – take up a defensive position - in the middle of a circle (gayelle) and try to draw blood.
SOURCE
Liverpool, Hollis (2001). Rituals of Power and Rebellion: the Carnival Tradition in Trinidad and Tobago,1763-1962.
THE JAMETTE CARNIVAL
This was a term which was used by the French and English to describe the Carnival celebrations of the African population during the period 1860 to 1896. The term comes from the French “diametre” meaning beneath the diameter of respectability, or the underworld . It was a term used at that time to describe a certain class in the community.
The view of the whites was that the Carnival activities were immoral, obscene and violent. The kalenda, the drumming, the dances and the sexually explicit masquerades were thought to be totally objectionable.
They were fully supported in this view by the contemporary press. Throughout the period there was a sustained attack on Carnival in most newspaper editorials. This ranged from outright condemnation to calls for a total ban. This was also the era of repressive legislation. The British Colonial Government passed several laws against all forms of African cultural traditions. As was seen in 1881, it took more than legislation and police batons to stop the Carnival. For the more repressive the legislation, the more aggressive the reponses. Carnival was more than just music , masquerade and dance. It was about their very existence.
Who were these Jamettes?
The Jamettes occupied the barrack yards of East Port of Spain. They lived in appalling conditions. These were the stickfighters, prostitutes, chantuelles, matadors, dustmen. There existed all the conditions for social instability : crime, vagrancy, disease, prostitution, unemployment, sexual permissiveness and dysfunctional families. It is no wonder, therefore, that Carnival was embraced with such fervour. For the Jamettes, it was a necessary release from the struggle that was their daily lives.
TYPES OF MASQUERADE
Africans used current topics to highlight the plight of the ordinary people and to poke fun at officialdom. In the 1840s, one band portrayed the Tour Council Elections of 1841. Another portrayed the victim of the Creole epidemic of 1854. Masqueraders dressed as doctors, nurses and afflicted persons.
Police and Thief was another masquerade enacted to highlight the problem of petty theft and the (often bad) relationship between the police and the urban working class. This was enacted by two persons, one of whom would be the thief who would be chased by the police.
The Negre Jardin (Garden Negroes)- also called Negue Jadin in French patois - masquerade first seen in pre-emancipation times, was also portrayed. This was popular among the stick fighters.
The European Clowns were another masquerade in this era.
Congo and Shango bands - These bands comprised mainly newly arrived native Africans, depicting religious beliefs of West Africa. They were dressed like ancestral spirits of the Yoruba people. They sometimes depicted animals. The Shango warriors wore masks on their face to represent Gods.
Ancestral Spirits - Newly arrived Africans also depicted ancestral spirits such as Lagahu, Papa Bois, C-ann, the Soucouyant and Douenne. They adorned their bodies with decorated cloth and raffia costumes to which were attached beads and glass decorations – jewellery, amulets, anklets, etc.
Moko Jumbie - This is an authentic African masquerade mounted on sticks. It was believed that the height of the stilts was associated with the ability to foresee evil faster than ordinary men. A jumbie among Africans is a spirit. Moko is a “diviner” in the Congo language. The Moko Jumbie was felt to be a protector of the village. This masquerade is still in existence today and is seen at occasions other than carnival.
TRADITIONAL CARNIVAL CHARACTERS
MINSTRELS  Black and white minstrels are based on the American minstrel shows popular around the turn of the century. The faces are painted white, while the costume consists of a scissors tail coat, striped trousers, tall straw hat and gloves.  One or two minstrel bands still remain, entertaining audiences with popular old American songs such as Swanee River and Who's Sorry Now. They accompany themselves on the guitar and the rattling bones played between the hands. They may sometimes have a dance routine. |
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DAME LORRAINE  The Dame Lorraine or Dame Lorine was imitative of the mas played by the 18th and early 19th century French planters, who would dress up in elegant costumes of the French aristocracy and parade in groups at private homes, particularly on Carnival Sunday night. They also performed the sophisticated dances of the period. The liberated slaves recreated these costumes - complete with elaborate fans and hats - in their own fashion, using materials that were readily available, such as assorted rags and imitative jewellery-type items, but emphasising and exaggerating the physical characteristics, and dancing to small bandol and cuatro bands. The major Dame Lorraine performers through the years however, were descendants of the French planters and persons of some respectability, who hid behind masks, mainly of the fine wire mesh variety, and found their way into the downtown Old Yards, where they paraded and danced for all and sundry. The tune which became associated with the Dame Lorraines still exists, and is played whenever they appear in groups at cultural events. |
MOKO JUMBIE  Moko is a derivation of the god "Moko", coming straight out of West African tradition. Moko is a “diviner” in the Congo language. The term "jumbie" or ghost was added by the freed slaves. It was believed that the height of the stilts was associated with the ability to foresee evil faster than ordinary men. The Moko Jumbie was felt to be a protector of the village. This mas is well-known throughout the Caribbean. It is an authentic African masquerade mounted on sticks. The stilt walker plays on stilts 10 to 12 feet high. His costume consists of a brightly coloured skirt or pants, jacket and elaborate hat. He would dance through the streets all day, and collect money from people on the upper floors and balconies. His dance was similar to a jig, and he was often accompanied by a drum, flute and triangle. |
JAB JAB  The name of this mas is derived from the French patois for 'Diable Diable". It is pretty devil mas. The costume consists of a Kandal or satin knickers, and satin shirt with points of cloth at the waist, from which bells hang. On the chest, there is a shaped cloth panel which is decorated with swansdown, rhinestones and mirrors. Stockings and alpagatas are worn on the feet, while the headress consists of a hood with stuffed cloth horns. The costume can come in alternating colours and be divided into front and back panels. The Jab Jab has a thick whip of plaited hemp which he swings and cracks threateningly. These whips can reduce the costumes of other Jab Jabs to threads. |
FANCY INDIANS  This mas is based on the indigeneous people of North America. The wearer decides how expensive or expansive he wants this costume to be. The headpiece, in its simplest form, is worn with feathers sticking up, and more feathers making tails down the back. More elaborate headpieces are built over bamboo or wire frames. The headpiece then becomes so heavy, it needs to be supported by a structure that covers the masquerader's entire body. This, the masquerader's wigwam, is richly worked with ostrich plumes, mirrors, beads, feather work, papier-maché masks, totem poles, canoes and ribbons. Bands of Indians can comprise a warrior chief and his family, a group of chiefs, or a group of warriors.  The Fancy Indian is the most popular variety of Indian mas. A feature of this mas is the language or languages they speak, in a call and response pattern, possibly adapted from the Black Indians of the New Orleans Mardi Gras and their characteristic movements. Other kinds of Indians that are disappearing are generally known as Wild Indians. These comprise Red Indians (Warahoons) and Blue Indians, which have links with the indigeneous peoples of Venezuela. There are also Black Indians or African Indians. |
JAB MOLASSIE  Jab is the French patois for 'Diable' (Devil), and Molassie is the French patois for Mélasse (Molasses). The Jab Molassie is one of several varieties of devil mas played in Trinidad and Tobago carnival. The costume consists of short pants or pants cut off at the knee, and a mask and horns. The jab malassie would carry chains, and wear locks and keys around his waist, and carry a pitch fork. He may smear his body with grease, tar, mud or coloured dyes (red, green or blue). The jab molassie "wines" or gyrates to a rhythmic beat that is played on tins or pans by his imps. While some of his imps supply the music, others hold his chain, seemingly restraining him as he pulls against them in his wild dance. The differences among the various forms of devil mas were once distinct, but have become blurred over time. |
PIERROT GRENADE  The Pierrot Grenade is a descendant of the Pierrot - a finely dressed masquerader and deeply learned scholar, who displayed his erudition by spelling polysyllabic words and quoting passages from Shakespeare. He was also a feared fighter with a whip or bull pistle, and was followed by a band of female supporters who fought on his behalf against other Pierrot groups. His descendant, the Pierrot Grenade, is a satire on the richer and more respectable Pierrot. The Pierrot Grenade is egotistical and retains the scholarly mien, but instead of the elegant costume, he wears rags. His gown consists of crocus bag (burlap), on which strips of coloured cloth, small tins containing pebbles, and small boxes that rattle, are attached. He may wear a hat or a coloured head tie on his head, and his face is covered with a grotesque mask. The mask provides anonymity for someone who delights in making barbed comments on "respectable" members of the community. |
BATS  This mas is almost extinct. The bat costume is normally black or brown and fitted tightly over the masquerader's body. The headpiece covers the head entirely, with the player being able to see through the mouth, or being able to lift it up to his forehead. It is made of swansdown with papier-maché face, teeth, nose and round eyes. Leather shoes with metal claws for toes are normally used. Ordinary shoes can also be adapted by the use of long socks, metal claws and a second sole. The bat wings are made from wire and bamboo or cane, and are covered with the same cloth as the skin-fitted costume. These wings can extend to 12 or 15 feet, and the masquerader's arms are fastened to them. Matching gloves complete the costume.  There is a bat dance to go with the costume. In performance, the masquerader crawls, flaps, dances on his toes, and folds his wings in a series of choreographed movements, imitating the bat. |
MIDNIGHT ROBBER  The Midnight Robber is one of the most beloved characters in traditional carnival. Both his costume and his speech are distinctive. His "Robber Talk" is extravagant and egocentric, and boastful. He brags about his great ancestry, exploits, strength, fearlessness and invincibility. This "Robber Talk" is derived from the tradition of the African Griot or storyteller, and the speech patterns and vocabulary are imitative of his former master.  He wears a black satin shirt, pantaloons, influenced by the American cowboy tradition, and a black, flowing cape on which the skull and cross bones are painted. Also painted on the cape is the name by shich the robber goes. He also wears a huge black, broad-brimmed, fringed hat on which a coffin is often superimposed. In his hand he carries a weapon - either a dagger, sword or gun - and a wooden money box in the shape of a coffin. He carries a whistle which he blows to punctuate his tales of valour. |
BURROKEET  Burrokeet, derived from the Spanish word burroquito (little donkey), is constructed from bamboo so as to give the illusion of a dancer riding a small burro or donkey. This masquerade was derived from both the East Indian culture and the Venezuelan Spaniards. The costume is comprised of a well-decorated donkey's head made from coloured paper. This head is attached to a bamboo framework. The masquerader enters through a hole at the back of the donkey's neck and carries the reins in his hands, thereby creating the illusion that he is its rider. The body of the donkey is covered in a long skirt satin skirt with a sisal tail, sometimes decorated with flowers. The bit and bridle are made of coloured cord. The rider wears a satin skirt and a large matador straw hat and dances in a way that mimmicks the antics of a donkey. He also performs a dance called Burriquite, which originated in Venezuela. |
BOOKMAN  The Bookman, also referred to as the Gownman or Ruler, is a feature of devil mas portrayals. The other two groups of characters in the devil band are the imps and beasts. The bookman's costume consists of Tudor-style pants, or a richly embroidered gown made of velvet and satin, with a pleated or fluted bodice, and a flowing cape festooned with biblical scenes. On his head is an oversized head mask which contains small horns and carries a demonic expression. The face of this mask is supposed to mirror the face of the devil himself. The bookman carries a pen and a large book in which he write the names of prospective souls for the devil. The bookman is the principal character in the devil band, and, in keeping with his status, his movement is waltz-like, with constant bowing. Musical accompaniment is provided by an orchestra of trumpet, saxophones, bass and drums playing conventional tunes. |
SAILOR MAS  This character was introduced in the 1880s when British, French and American naval ships came to Trinidad. It is one of the more popular costumes, being lightweight and inexpensive. There are several variations on the sailor mas including Free French Sailor, King Sailor, and Fancy Sailor to name a few. The costume of the Free French sailor consists of a black beret with the name of the ship on the rim of the beret, a tight-fitting short sleeve bow neck jersey with horizontal blue and white stripes, long, bell-bottomed black melton pants, and black shoes. The King Sailor's costume consists of a white drill or corduroy pants and shirt with a sailor collar. There are epaulettes on each shoulder, a red sash across the chest, a crown on the masquerader's head, cords, medals and war ribbons on the left side of the chest and a walking stick in his hand.  The Fancy Sailor was an off-shoot of the King Sailor. The fancy sailor costume consists of papier-mâché headpieces, decorated and painted to look like bird, animals or plants. The sailor outfit is decorated with ribbons, medals, braiding, swansdown and other embellishments to match the headpieces. There are several dances to go along with the sailor mas portrayal, such as the Bote, Crab, Marrico, Pachanga, Rock de Boat, Skip Jack and the Camel Walk. |
BABY DOLL  The baby doll character, which is now extinct, was played up to the 1930s. The masquerader portrays a gaily dressed doll, decked out in a frilled dress and bonnet. In her arms she carries a doll which symbolises an illegitimate baby. The masquerader portraying the baby doll, stops male passers-by and accuses them of being the baby's father. |
NEGUE JADIN  This character, which is now extinct, goes back to the pre-emancipation era. During that period, Carnival was observed by the upper classes mainly. While the slaves and free coloureds were not forbidden from celebrating carnival, they were compelled to stay within their own stratum of society and not presume to rub shoulders with the aristocracy. The planter class on the other hand, often imitated the dress and customs of their slaves during the carnival celebrations. One of their favourite disguises was that of the Negue Jadin or field slave. This costume consists of a tight-fitting satin or khaki breeches reaching to just above the knee where willows are hung, and a bright, plain coloured shirt with a "fol" or heart-shaped panel of contrasting colour sewn on the chest and bordered with swans down. The 'fol' is decorated with tiny mirrors and rhinestones. As with all carnival costumes during this period, the masquerader covered his face with a mask. After emancipation, the former slaves adopted the Negue Jadin character in their carnival celebrations, but as a satirical portrayal of the planter trying to imitate them. |
COW BAND  The Cow Band, which dates back to the days of the Canboulay, consisted of a small group of men dressed in gowns of sacking made from rice bags. These gowns were completely covered with dried plantain leaves. Each masquerader wore a homemade papier-mâché mask representing the head of a cow surmounted by a pair of horns. Members of the band would frolic and move through the crowds behaving like real cows. This masquerade became dormant for a few years, and was later revived by the employees of the abattoir, and became part of the Jouvert celebrations. In later years, on Carnival Tuesday, the Cow Band came out in brightly coloured costumes, with picadors and a matador who would challenge the cows. The cow character's costume consisted of tight-fitting breeches of yellow velvet or satin, with gold braid and spangles along the sides and around the bottom at the knees, a tight-fitting maroon satin long-sleeved blouse completely covered with a sutach decoration of gold braid, gloves, cream stockings and alpagatas. A well-secured cap-like contraption on the head supported a pair of highly polished cow horns. A short section of the hairy part of the cow's tail was attached to the seat of the breeches. An imported wire gauze mask replaced the cow mask of the previous day.  Male singers and the musicians wore yellow breeches, maroon shirts with billowing sleeves tight at the wrist, a sash around the waist and red beret. The women wore yellow skirts, red or maroon bodices, and headties. All wore masks of the wire gauze type, those of the women being decorated with gold braid along the forehead and at the sides, with gaudy earrings dangling from them. Music was provided by such string instruments as the mandolin, teeplay, bandol, banjo, cuatro, guitar, violin and chac-chacs (maracas). The Cow Band became extinct just before World War I. |
CARNIVAL IN THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY
The ruling classes withdrew from Carnival for most of the latter half of the ninetenth century. After the festival was purged of some of the coarser elements they returned gradually. Even then they turned out in carriages and lorries.
It took another forty years before they rejoined the street masquerade. They restricted their participation to house parties and club dances and fancy balls. It is from these balls that the Carnival Queen Show and the Dimanche Gras productions emerged.
Fancy dress balls were held at the Prince’s building adjacent to the Queen’s Park Savannah. In 1922, the first major Carnival stage spectacle was presented by the Les Amantes de Jesus Society – a voluntary organization under the leadership of M. Joseph Scheult. The Society gave an annual charity ball on Carnival Monday night. This started in the 1920s and continued until 1948. After a fire destroyed the City Council building, the Council offices were moved to the Princes' Building. The offices were then moved to the Queen's Park Oval.
In the early 1950s, with the rise in nationalism, the government decided that carnival was too important a national festival to be left in the hands of private enterprise. The CDC (Carnival Development Committee) was therefore set up and given the responsibility of managing the carnival celebrations.
LINKS TO NEWSPAPER ARTICLES ABOUT CARNIVAL
Sources of Information Hill, Errol. (1972). The Trinidad Carnival. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1972. Liverpool, Hollis (2001). _Rituals of Power and Rebellion: the Carnival Tradition in Trinidad and Tobago,1763-1962._Chicago, Ill.; Trinidad and Tobago: Research Associates School Times; Frontline Distribution. Pearse, Andrew. Carnival in Nineteenth Century Trinidad. **Caribbean Quarterly**vol. 4 no. 2 p31. Viey La Cou Information Brochure. Mas an' Ting from the Past. Images were scanned from a series of paintings on traditional mas, done by Gizelle Winter.
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