Jerome Reynard | University of the Witwatersrand (original) (raw)

Papers by Jerome Reynard

Southern African Field Archaeology, 2024

The broader Drakensberg is an important region for understanding population dynamics and adaptati... more The broader Drakensberg is an important region for understanding population dynamics and adaptation between the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Here, we announce our campaign to re-excavate Strathalan Cave in the northeastern Cape of South Africa. Strathalan Cave sits at the foothills of the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg at the edge of the Great Escarpment of southern Africa. Well-known for its organic preservation, the site is important for understanding the archaeology of the region. People have occupied Strathalan Cave intermittently from ca. 29 000 years ago (ka), so exploring occupational patterns at sites such as these is a valuable means of understanding Stone Age behaviour during glacial Marine Isotope Stage 2 (ca. 29-14 ka). In this paper, we provide the first detailed description of the geological, geomorphological, sedimentary and environmental context of Strathalan Cave and review previous studies conducted on the site and region. We also introduce the goals of our re-excavation project and present a detailed map of the three cavities that make up the Strathalan Cave complex as part of a new, comprehensive, spatial control system established on site. Given the remarkable preservation of organic materials, Strathalan Cave may provide an important and rare source of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental data for this period. Future work at Strathalan will likely contribute to our understanding of the links between settlement patterns and environmental change. This is especially important given that Strathalan sits at the juncture between different environmental and geographic regions.

Quaternary Science Advances, 2024

Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 4 and 3 were significant periods encompassing some 50,000 years, incl... more Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 4 and 3 were significant periods encompassing some 50,000 years, including at least two techno-cultural entities: the Howiesons Poort (HP) and post-HP. Exploring subsistence and environmental changes during these periods may help us understand broader aspects of behavioural and occupational patterns over MIS 4 and 3. In this paper, we report on taphonomic analyses of a sample of early HP, late HP and post-HP fauna from Klasies River main site cave 1A. We use these and other faunal data to examine the links between subsistence behaviour and the environment during the HP and post-HP. The results of our analyses indicate that percussion marks are abundant in the HP, with percussion mark frequencies more prevalent in the later HP than the early HP indicating that humans were the primary accumulators of fauna in the HP. Other taphonomic data such as fracture patterns, burning and trampling marks also suggests that human activity was more prevalent in the HP than the post-HP. In contrast, in the post-HP, the prevalence of zoogenic marks on small mammal remains, and comparisons to actualistic assemblages indicate that carnivores probably contributed significantly to the post-HP assemblage. In all the samples investigated, crania dominate skeletal-part profiles. This could be a result of taphonomic bias, or it could indicate that foraging likely occurred relatively close to the site. Analyses of carcass-part utility show that marrow-extraction may have been a key subsistence strategy in the HP. In the post-HP, bone density-mediated attrition had a significant effect on fauna making it challenging to ascertain subsistence patterns, but preliminary analysis may also suggest marrow extraction in combination with other strategies.

Frontiers in Earth Science

Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2021

Occupational intensity is a common theme in current research and has been linked to significant d... more Occupational intensity is a common theme in current research and has been linked to significant demographic trends in the past. The Late Pleistocene in the southern Cape may be especially important in understanding the impacts of socio-demographic change given its association with developments in ‘modern’ human behaviour. The ubiquity of archaeo-faunal remains at Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites makes these convenient datasets for documenting site-specific occupational patterns. In this paper, zooarchaeological and taphonomic data are evaluated as proxies for occupational intensity, and occupational trends are explored in the southern Cape. Zooarchaeological and taphonomic data from three southern Cape MSA sites—Klipdrift Shelter, Blombos Cave and Pinnacle Point—are compared with previously determined higher and lower occupational levels within each site to assess the value of these proxies in tracking temporal changes in settlement intensity. The results show that, while frequencies of small mammals and larger ungulates often covary with occupational levels, these are problematic indicators because of the impact of carnivores. Similarly, faunal diversity generally corresponds well with increasing human occupations but is a problematic proxy because of the effects of animal activity. Anthropogenic bone surface modifications appear to be effective in tracking occupational patterns, with trampling a particularly useful indicator. Faunal and shellfish density, and transverse bone fracture patterns, are valuable proxies of occupational intensity at all sites. Generally, the data suggests close links between occupational intensity at these sites and marine transgressions. Evidence of increased exploitation of small game in the later MSA may imply periods of subsistence intensification possibly linked to increased demographic pressure during Marine Isotope Stage 4.

Quaternary International, 2014

Faunal remains are often recovered from shelly deposits in coastal sites but little is known abou... more Faunal remains are often recovered from shelly deposits in coastal sites but little is known about the trampling effects of shell on bone. Here, trampling experiments were conducted to investigate these effects and to describe the types of surface modification that could occur on bone in coastal sediment. The results suggest that bone is significantly more likely to exhibit surface modification if trampled in shelly rather than sandy sediment. Burnt bone is less likely to display trampling modification. This is probably because, prior to trampling, burning exfoliates the cortex making the observation of markings on bone problematic. Pitting, trampling lines and sheen were found to be the most prevalent form of surface modification. Pitting is a particularly overlooked criterion and its presence on archaeological bone suggests that the effects of trampling should be considered in zooarchaeological analyses. The pervasiveness of sheen and trampling lines on the experimental bone makes it possible that some incidence of trampling could be mistaken for use-wear or intentional polish. However, the vast majority of trampled bone exhibits sheen which does not resemble anthropogenic specimens and trampling is unlikely to smooth bone fragment edges. This experiment demonstrates that modification caused by trampling can generally be differentiated from butchery markings. The high percentage of modified trampled bone in the shelly deposits suggests that some shell-marks may be mistaken for cut marks, if recovered in an archaeological context.

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology, 2021

This is an advance summary of a forthcoming article in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthro... more This is an advance summary of a forthcoming article in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Please check back later for the full article. The Late Pleistocene in southern Africa shows important developments in human subsistence economies. Zooarchaeological research indicates that early modern humans exploited a wide range of faunal species during the Middle Stone Age. Southern African societies developed flexible animal exploitation strategies that increased their resilience against the backdrop of drastic Pleistocene climatic changes. While megafauna are virtually absent, very large herbivores such as giant buffalo and dangerous prey such as suids were targeted with regularity. The study of faunal remains of such key sites as Border Cave, Blombos Cave, Klasies River, and Sibudu also played an important role in the development of overarching theories of the role of subsistence in the development of modern human behaviors through landmark studies by Richard Klein, Lewis ...

Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2022

Occupational intensity is a common theme in current research and has been linked to significant d... more Occupational intensity is a common theme in current research and has been linked to significant demographic trends in the past. The Late Pleistocene in the southern Cape may be especially important in understanding the impacts of socio-demographic change given its association with developments in 'modern' human behaviour. The ubiquity of archaeo-faunal remains at Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites makes these convenient datasets for documenting site-specific occupational patterns. In this paper, zooarchaeological and taphonomic data are evaluated as proxies for occupational intensity, and occupational trends are explored in the southern Cape. Zooarchaeological and taphonomic data from three southern Cape MSA sites-Klipdrift Shelter, Blombos Cave and Pinnacle Point-are compared with previously determined higher and lower occupational levels within each site to assess the value of these proxies in tracking temporal changes in settlement intensity. The results show that, while frequencies of small mammals and larger ungulates often covary with occupational levels, these are problematic indicators because of the impact of carnivores. Similarly, faunal diversity generally corresponds well with increasing human occupations but is a problematic proxy because of the effects of animal activity. Anthropogenic bone surface modifications appear to be effective in tracking occupational patterns, with trampling a particularly useful indicator. Faunal and shellfish density, and transverse bone fracture patterns, are valuable proxies of occupational intensity at all sites. Generally, the data suggests close links between occupational intensity at these sites and marine transgressions. Evidence of increased exploitation of small game in the later MSA may imply periods of subsistence intensification possibly linked to increased demographic pressure during Marine Isotope Stage 4.

Frontiers in Earth Science, 2022

Klasies River is a key site in understanding the behaviour of coastal foragers in the southern Ca... more Klasies River is a key site in understanding the behaviour of coastal foragers in the southern Cape of South Africa. Faunal remains from Klasies River, recovered from an almost 70,000 year sequence over the Late Pleistocene, are a valuable dataset in investigating subsistence and occupational dynamics, yet few taphonomic studies have been conducted on the fauna from Klasies River. Here, the first taphonomic analyses of faunal remains from the Deacon and Wurz excavation is presented. The aim of this paper is to link occupational patterns during the Late Pleistocene at Klasies River with coastal ecology using taxonomic data from previous studies, and recently analysed taphonomic data. Taphonomic analyses of samples from the MSA II Lower, the Howiesons Poort and the MSA III periods were used to examine occupational intensity based on proportions of anthropogenic and zoogenic bone surface modification, trampling marks, transverse fractures and faunal density. Declining foraging efficiency or subsistence intensification was also investigated using indicators for expanded diet breadth (e.g., small fauna exploitation and increases in juveniles), more intensive marrow extraction and evidence for greater foraging distances. Herbivore functional types and dietary preferences were examined using taxonomic data and these show three main ecological phases at Klasies River: the MSA I; the upper and lower MSA II; and the HP and MSA III phases. Taphonomic data show increased occupational intensity in the MSA II
Lower, with subsistence intensification also more evident here than other
layers. Trampling data suggests that occupational intensity was greater in the earlier Howiesons Poort than later phase with little evidence of declining foraging efficiency then. The data indicate that, while humans contributed significantly to the MSA III assemblage, carnivores were the main accumulators here suggesting lower occupational intensity in this phase. The results of this study shows a possible link between increased
occupational intensity and declining foraging efficiency at Klasies River but larger taphonomic samples are needed to explore this relationship further.

South African Journal of Geology, 2021

Analyses of faunal remains are a key means of inferring palaeoenvironmental change. In this paper... more Analyses of faunal remains are a key means of inferring palaeoenvironmental change. In this paper, the use of faunal remains as a proxy for environmental conditions from Marine Isotope Stage 6 to the Holocene in southern Africa is reviewed. The focus of this review is on large herbivore abundance and how these fluctuate temporally and regionally in accordance with palaeo-climatic shifts. Here, southern Africa is divided into four eco-regions loosely based on climatic, biotic and zoogeographic traits: the Cape Floristic Region, the arid and semi-arid region, the savanna and grassland region, and the wetter eastern region. The relative abundance of large herbivores within these regions are noted, and temporal trends are inferred. On the whole, most eco-regions maintain similar herbivore compositions over time showing the regional ecological resilience of these taxa to local-scale environmental change. Yet some changes in faunal frequencies are apparent. The Cape Floristic Region shows evidence of significant faunal turnover from the Late Pleistocene to the Holocene. Here, grazers are significantly more abundant during glacial periods, probably linked to the terrestrial expansion of the palaeo-Agulhas coastal plain. Shifts in ungulate abundance in the currently xeric central interior, also indicate wetter periods in the Pleistocene. Holocene faunas are generally similar to historic distributions but shifts between xeric and mesic periods are also evident.

A) The position of sites discussed in this paper (1 = BBC, 2 = KDS, 3 = Nelson’s Bay Cav... more A) The position of sites discussed in this paper (1 = BBC, 2 = KDS, 3 = Nelson’s Bay Cave, 4 = Pinnacle Point) relative to the winter (to the left of the red line), year-round (between the red and orange lines), and summer rainfall (to the right of the orange line) zones of the modern southern Cape coast of South Africa on a map of % C3/C4 plant species abundances (adapted from Vogel et al. [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0157408#pone.0157408.ref022" target="_blank">22</a>]). B) A close-up view of the coastline proximate to BBC and KDS.</p

Quaternary Research, 2020

The archaeological assemblage recovered from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels in Blombos Cave, S... more The archaeological assemblage recovered from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels in Blombos Cave, South Africa, is central to our understanding of the development of early modern humans. Here, we demonstrate that the cultural and technological innovations inferred from the Blombos Cave MSA record also correlate with significant shifts in site use and occupational intensity. Through a comprehensive geoarchaeological investigation of three MSA occupation phases, we identified distinct diachronic trends in the frequency of visits and the modes of occupation. During the earliest phases (ca. 88–82 ka), humans inhabited the cave for more extended periods, but cave visits were not frequent. During the later phases (ca. 77–72 ka), the cave was more regularly visited but for shorter periods each time. We argue that these changes in local occupational intensity, which also coincide with shifts in vegetation, sea levels, and subsistence, can best be explained by broader changes in hunter-gathere...

Quaternary Science Reviews, 2020

Given the large number of hominin and archaeological remains the site has yielded, Klasies River ... more Given the large number of hominin and archaeological remains the site has yielded, Klasies River has contributed significantly to our understanding of how humans developed and behaved during the Middle Stone Age. Its extensive occupational sequence and the abundance of faunal remains recovered from the deposits also make it an important site in exploring palaeoenvironmental change during the Late Pleistocene. The mammalian fauna from the over 70 000 year long sequence at Klasies River possibly extending from MIS 6 to 3 are useful in positioning the evolution of complex human behaviour within an environmental context. Here, we use the large mammal fauna excavated in the 1980s and 1990s from Klasies River Cave 1 and 1A to test links between ungulate diversity and palaeoclimatic change in the southeastern Cape of South Africa. Fauna from extended Pleistocene sequences in the southeastern Cape are relatively rare and collections such as these are important proxies for assessing environmental change in this particular region. Our analysis indicates that the proportion of ungulate grazers, browsers and mixed-feeders shifts in accordance with glacial/interglacial fluctuations. We find significant correlations between grazer proportions and ungulate diversity through the sequence which may be linked to the effect of marine regressions on the landscape or shifting moisture availability. We compare the Klasies River data set with a selection of Middle Stone Age sites in the southern Cape. Our analysis suggests that primary productivity is greater along the eastern southern Cape than the western region. This study has broad implications for understanding the relationship between expanding grasslands and ungulate richness during the Late Pleistocene.

Quaternary International, 2018

Zooarchaeological data offer a unique opportunity to examine both palaeoenvironmental and behavio... more Zooarchaeological data offer a unique opportunity to examine both palaeoenvironmental and behavioural trends using single datasets. In this study, we combine taphonomic and palaeoecological analyses of the faunal remains from recent excavations from the Still Bay layers at Blombos Cave to explore subsistence behaviour during this significant period in behavioural modernity. The c. 77-72 ka Still Bay is linked to innovative technology and the expression of complex cognition but is often lumped together as a homogenous entity. Here, we assess subsistence strategies within the Still Bay at Blombos Cave by examining zooarchaeological data from each layer. We investigate temporal changes during this technocomplex in an attempt to place subsistence behaviour within a paleoecological context. Our results show significant differences in surface modification frequencies between the early and middle/later Still Bay phases. Large and medium-sized ungulates were processed differently and filleting was probably an important activity. The data show that changes in shellfish density from the early to later Still Bay correspond to changes in ungulate communities. This may be due to changing environmental conditions around Blombos or shifting foraging strategies. This shift may also be associated with transport decisions for larger mammals. We discuss mobility patterns and the connection between subsistence strategies, environmental change and occupational intensity during the Still Bay levels at Blombos Cave.

African Archaeological Review, 2018

Demography probably had a significant influence on the transmission of cultural innovation during... more Demography probably had a significant influence on the transmission of cultural innovation during the late Pleistocene. In enclosed sites such as rockshelters, trampling marks are likely direct evidence for human occupations and can possibly be used to infer occupational patterns. In this study, we explore trampling modification as a proxy for occupational intensity. We examined trampling data at the Middle Stone Age site of Blombos Cave in South Africa to investigate whether these marks may inform on occupational intensity during the Still Bay period-a significant era for the development of behavioural modernity. Trampling is defined by pitting, scratches, abrasion and linear marks. These marks were then compared to other taphonomic proxies (e.g., faunal density per volume, transverse fractures, non-anthropogenic modification) to explore the relationships between these indicators. Our results indicate that trampling modifications can provide information on a site's occupational history and that the data Afr Archaeol Rev

Journal of human evolution, 2017

The Still Bay (SB) and Howiesons Poort (HP) were two significant techno-complexes in the Middle S... more The Still Bay (SB) and Howiesons Poort (HP) were two significant techno-complexes in the Middle Stone Age and key periods in the expression of behavioral complexity. In this study, we compare the recently excavated fauna from the SB layers at Blombos Cave (BBC) with that from the HP levels at Klipdrift Shelter (KDS) in the southern Cape of South Africa. We consider our findings in the framework of recent models for early human subsistence behavior. In particular, we link our study with models involving resource intensification to examine whether foraging strategies in the HP were more or less intensive than those in the SB. Based on our criteria used to assess intensification-the exploitation of low-ranked prey, the processing of low-utility elements, transport decisions, and occupational intensity-intensive subsistence strategies are more evident at KDS than BBC. Our results suggest that low-ranked elements were processed more heavily and diet breath was broader at KDS than at BBC....

Quaternary International, 2016

Abstract The Howiesons Poort techno-complex of southern Africa was a particularly significant pha... more Abstract The Howiesons Poort techno-complex of southern Africa was a particularly significant phase in the development of complex cognition in Homo sapiens and new sites are crucial to our understanding of this period. Here, we present the results of a taphonomic and zooarchaeological analysis of Klipdrift Shelter to investigate subsistence strategies during the Late Pleistocene. In particular, we focus on the taphonomic history of the assemblage. Our analysis shows that the Klipdrift Shelter faunal assemblage is extensively fragmented; probably as a result of anthropogenic processing and post-depositional alteration. As a result, little significant information can be extrapolated from the analysis of skeletal-part abundance per layer. Human involvement in the accumulation of ungulate, small mammal, carnivore and tortoise remains is apparent in all layers. We show evidence of disarticulation, marrow extraction, skinning, filleting and carnivore consumption and document the processing of low-ranked game and elements. We also discuss the possibility of remote-capture technology at Klipdrift during the Howiesons Poort.

ABSTRACT Zooarchaeological studies are generally based on analyses of faunal remains identified t... more ABSTRACT Zooarchaeological studies are generally based on analyses of faunal remains identified to family, genus or species. Middle Stone Age faunal assemblages, however, are usually highly fragmented with the majority of remains unidentified. We measured the cortical thickness of a sample of unidentified long bone fragments from the Middle Stone Age layers at Blombos Cave to investigate whether the unidentified specimens mimic the identified assemblage in terms of animal sizes represented.For reference samples, cortical thicknesses of goat (Capra hircus) bones from Gobabeb in Namibia were measured, in addition to the long bones from a sample of identified fauna from the M3 phase at Blombos Cave.Based on these comparative samples, cortical thickness measurements were used to group unidentified long bones from the M1 and upper and lower M2 phases into small, medium and large size classes. Our results suggest that medium-sized animals were more prevalent in the Blombos assemblage than indicated by the identified specimens.The size discrepancy between the identified and unidentified specimens may be the result of analytical or taphonomic processes, or human behaviour. The results also confirm previous analyses that larger animals were more common in the M1 than the upper and lower M2 at Blombos Cave.

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2014

Surveys for archaeological sites in the De Hoop Nature Reserve, southern Cape, South Africa resul... more Surveys for archaeological sites in the De Hoop Nature Reserve, southern Cape, South Africa resulted in the discovery of a cave complex comprising two locations, Klipdrift Cave and Klipdrift Shelter. Excavations commenced in 2010 with Later Stone Age deposits initially being recovered at the former site and Middle Stone Age deposits at the latter. The lithic component at Klipdrift Shelter is consistent with the Howiesons Poort, a technological complex recorded at a number of archaeological sites in southern Africa. The age for these deposits at Klipdrift Shelter, obtained by single grain optically stimulated luminescence, spans the period 65.5 AE 4.8 ka to 59.4 AE 4.6 ka. Controlled and accurate excavations of the discrete layers have resulted in the recovery of a hominin molar, marine shells, terrestrial fauna, floral remains, organic materials, hearths, lithics, ochre, and ostrich eggshell. More than 95 pieces of the latter, distributed across the layers, are engraved with diverse, abstract patterns. The preliminary results from Klipdrift Shelter presented in this report provide new insights into the Howiesons Poort in this subregion and contribute further to ongoing knowledge about the complex behaviours of early Homo sapiens in southern Africa. Excavations at the Klipdrift Complex will continue in the future.

Southern African Field Archaeology, 2024

Quaternary Science Advances, 2024

Frontiers in Earth Science

Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2021

Quaternary International, 2014

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology, 2021

Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2022

Occupational intensity is a common theme in current research and has been linked to significant d... more Occupational intensity is a common theme in current research and has been linked to significant demographic trends in the past. The Late Pleistocene in the southern Cape may be especially important in understanding the impacts of socio-demographic change given its association with developments in 'modern' human behaviour. The ubiquity of archaeo-faunal remains at Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites makes these convenient datasets for documenting site-specific occupational patterns. In this paper, zooarchaeological and taphonomic data are evaluated as proxies for occupational intensity, and occupational trends are explored in the southern Cape. Zooarchaeological and taphonomic data from three southern Cape MSA sites-Klipdrift Shelter, Blombos Cave and Pinnacle Point-are compared with previously determined higher and lower occupational levels within each site to assess the value of these proxies in tracking temporal changes in settlement intensity. The results show that, while frequencies of small mammals and larger ungulates often covary with occupational levels, these are problematic indicators because of the impact of carnivores. Similarly, faunal diversity generally corresponds well with increasing human occupations but is a problematic proxy because of the effects of animal activity. Anthropogenic bone surface modifications appear to be effective in tracking occupational patterns, with trampling a particularly useful indicator. Faunal and shellfish density, and transverse bone fracture patterns, are valuable proxies of occupational intensity at all sites. Generally, the data suggests close links between occupational intensity at these sites and marine transgressions. Evidence of increased exploitation of small game in the later MSA may imply periods of subsistence intensification possibly linked to increased demographic pressure during Marine Isotope Stage 4.

Frontiers in Earth Science, 2022

South African Journal of Geology, 2021

Quaternary Research, 2020

Quaternary Science Reviews, 2020

Quaternary International, 2018

African Archaeological Review, 2018

Journal of human evolution, 2017

Quaternary International, 2016

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2014