Belay Zerga | Wolkite University (original) (raw)

Papers by Belay Zerga

Discover Agriculture

A marketing channel is a marketing process that performs several functions by bridging the gap be... more A marketing channel is a marketing process that performs several functions by bridging the gap between production and consumption. The analysis of marketing channels provides a systematic knowledge of the flow of goods or services from their production areas to the final market or end-users. This study assessed the status of eucalypt trade in Western Watersheds of Gurage Zone, Central-south Ethiopia. The specific objectives were to assess the trend of eucalypt trade and to examine its contribution to the construction industry in rural areas and urban centers. The study employed the purposive sampling method. The main reason for selecting this sampling method is to select well-experienced eucalypt traders and to avoid the inclusion of non-eucalypt tree farmers and to keep the validity of the representative samples (to cover large villages) Focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and critical; observations are the major tools of data collection. The result shows that eucalypt products' trade (marketing channel) is accelerating in the study area due to two reasons. Firstly, attractive markets demand due to booming constriction in urban centers within and out of the study area. Particularly Addis Ababa is the major destination of eucalypt poles. Secondly, asbestos and furniture factories which are found mainly in Addis Ababa are the next destinations. These destinations particularly those located out of the study area purchase products from the third suppliers (their adjacent eucalypt traders). Hence the first suppliers (farmers) sell to the second suppliers (local towns' eucalypt traders) and finally, these agents sell to the third suppliers (major towns' eucalypt traders). In another scenario, farmers are producers, local traders are the first purchasers, major town traders are the second purchasers, and construction sites and wood-based factories are the third (final) purchasers of eucalypt products. Eucalypt products are one of the sources of tax revenue to the Zone next to chat. The tax stations found in various parts of the woredas are busy mainly in controlling and taxing these two products. At zonal level, these two products' tax collections collectively contribute about 10,000,000 ETB or USD 300,300 (USD 1= 33.3 ETB at current currency exchange rate) per annum. The share of eucalypt products is about 4,000,000 ETB or USD 120,120. In the study Watersheds, Enemorna Ener Woreda's contribution is the highest one and followed by Cheha, Eza, Gumer, and Geta Woredas. Farmers benefited significantly by selling poles of various stages to urban-rural areas and centers. To sustain the market facility and thereby benefits from eucalypt trade, eucalypt-related factories should be established in the areas. Households have to direct sales to the end-users to avoid unnecessary price deflation by middlemen.

Climate change refers to long term fluctuations of temperature, precipitation, wind and other ele... more Climate change refers to long term fluctuations of temperature, precipitation, wind and other elements of Earth's climate system. It is a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global and/or regional atmosphere. Natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods in the types of changes of temperature and rainfall. It occurs because of internal variability within the climate system and external factors. The external causes may be natural or human induced activity. Human activities cause climate change mainly due to fossil fuel burning and removal of forests. Ethiopia's contribution to GHG emissions is very low on a global scale. The emissions of greenhouse gases are predominantly from high-income countries while the negative effects of climate change are predominantly in low income countries. This means climate change is generally expected to hit developing countries harder than industrialized countries. Developing countries are less capable of mitigating or adapting to the changes due to their poverty and high dependence on the environment for subsistence. It has brought an escalating burden to already existing environmental concerns of the country mainly by anthropogenic factors. Climate change causes wide-ranging effects on the environment, socioeconomic and related sectors, including water resources, agriculture and food security, human health, terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity. Similarly, the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy is rain-fed agriculture, which is heavily sensitive to climate variability and change. In addition, many species with limited geographical opportunities, restricted habitat requirements and/or small populations are typically the most vulnerable. The Ethiopian Government has already put in place a number of policies, strategies and programs aimed at enhancing the adaptive capacity and reducing climate variability and change. Thus, the country's Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) focuses on four pillars (namely agriculture, forestry, renewable energy, and advanced technologies) that will support Ethiopia's developing green economy. Thus, this review paper tries to see climate change and its mitigation and adaptation efforts in Ethiopia.

Sustainable Earth

Eucalypt reforestation has been a common feature of many countries, especially in the developing ... more Eucalypt reforestation has been a common feature of many countries, especially in the developing countries, such as Ethiopia. Farmers in Ethiopia plant large numbers of eucalypts on small areas of land and manage them to yield a variety of products, including leaves and small branches for fuelwood, and poles and posts for house building and other farm uses. Many people in Ethiopia are dependent on eucalypts as a source of fuel and house building material. The use of trees, especially eucalypts, as a living bank account, to be harvested when there is a need for cash, is widespread. This being the reality, the arguments for and against planting eucalypts in Ethiopia has been mounting from time to time, especially associated with water use, soil fertility, soil erosion, allelopathic effects, understory vegetation and plant diversity as well as wild animals. The paradox of reforestation using eucalypts results, mostly, from inappropriate species-site matching and poor management rather ...

This independent study assessed how forest management is a matter of local community governance a... more This independent study assessed how forest management is a matter of local community governance and management by showing best cultural management practices in Ethiopia with special reference to Yotyet/Yewezera Community forest which is located in Eza Wereda, Gurage Zone, Ethiopia. Forests are essential for human survival and well-being. They harbor two thirds of all terrestrial animal and plant species. They provide us with food, oxygen, shelter, recreation, and spiritual sustenance, and they are the source for over 5,000 commercially-traded products, ranging from pharmaceuticals to timber and clothing. Due to lack of evidence in Ethiopia and more broadly in Africa, Community Based Forest Management approaches have been underestimated. The study area, Yotyet/Yewezera natural forest has four adjacent villages with 3421 population number. These four villages were purposefully selected. In-depth semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), direct field observations and ...

– The study assessed eucalyptus tree farming practices in three selected KPAs (Kebele Peasant Adm... more – The study assessed eucalyptus tree farming practices in three selected KPAs (Kebele Peasant Administrations) namely, Zigba Boto (kolla), Shebraden (woinadega) and Koter Gedra (dega). In this study both primary and secondary data were employed. Purposive systematic sampling procedure was used to select the three agro-ecological areas of the wereda. In each selected KPAs 180 households were selected by using purposive systematic sampling techniques. Direct observations, discussions with key informants and focus groups were undertaken by the researcher. The required data were also collected using schedule through structured open and close-ended questionnaires. In Eza wereda eucalyptus farming is becoming an emergent and accelerating activity by small land holders. As reported by respondents, each sample KPA's households at least has 100 eucalyptus trees. Needless to say eucalyptus is multipurpose tree and the farmers know this very well. Eucalyptus is becoming everything to the small land holders. According to focus group discussions with DAs (Development Agents) in Koter Gedra KPA, farmers' reason for the initiation of planting eucalyptus tree was due to shortage of fuel wood supply particularly in dega areas which were known for fuel wood supply deficit before the adoption of growing eucalyptus plantation. After observing the benefits of pioneer farmers in planting eucalyptus trees, other farmers decided to grow the same. During data collection all farmers showed clear understanding of the dramatic expansion of eucalyptus as a result of population pressure and so as to fulfill fuel wood, construction and marketing demands. Thus, the current eucalyptus land holding size of the area further substantiates Boserupian Theory, that is the general trend of " more people more trees " situation.

Origin and effect of ecosystem problems are often not easily definable. Ecosystem degradation has... more Origin and effect of ecosystem problems are often not easily definable. Ecosystem degradation has already resulted in noticeable and wide-ranging effects on the Ethiopian community-both rural and urban. Due to depletion of forests and the resultant increase in runoff, the storage of water has greatly diminished and a large number of water points for human and animal use have dried up. Ecosystem degradation leads to decrease in both the quality and number of livestock due to absence of fodder; any change in livestock sector has tremendous effects on the living standards of the rural people as a whole. Where agricultural land livestock production reach very low levels as a result of reduced cultivable land and yields, a situation will be created where there is insufficient land leading to shrinkage of average farm size which, in turn, creates a disguised unemployment. Ethiopia may stand number one in Africa (perhaps in the world) to witness the power of land degradation deriving peopl...

Sustainable Earth, 2021

Journal of Energy and Natural Resources, 2015

There is a large interest in biofuels in Ethiopia as a substitute to petroleum-based fuels, with ... more There is a large interest in biofuels in Ethiopia as a substitute to petroleum-based fuels, with a purpose of enhancing energy security and promoting rural development. Ethiopia has announced a national biofuel production in the GTP in order to secure energy in the rural part and urban of Ethiopia. Its implications need to be studied intensively considering the fact that Ethiopia is a developing country with high population density and large rural population depending upon land for their livelihood. Ethiopia plan to reduce importing oil from foreign since the oil imported has huge potential of polluting the environment. Therefore, biofuel is free from pollutants; it is the main energy source for Ethiopia in the near future since Ethiopia economy is experiencing high growth rate, which may lead to enhanced demand for food, livestock products, timber, paper, etc., with implications for land use. The assessment is largely focused on first generation biofuel crops, since the Ethiopia program is currently dominated by many biofuel crops/trees, the process of biofuel and the relation environment and climate mitigation potential of biofuel. Technological,policy options, awareness creation required for promoting sustainable biofuel production in Ethiopia as recommendation from the review study.

International Journal of Innovative Research and Development

The arid and semi-arid agro-ecological area of Ethiopia cover more than 62% of the total land are... more The arid and semi-arid agro-ecological area of Ethiopia cover more than 62% of the total land area. The Somali National Regional State (SNRS) occupies a large geographical area in the eastern and southeastern part of Ethiopia. The area of SNRS is estimated at 340,000 km2. This makes rangeland utilization by livestock, the largest land-use system in the country. The rangelands in the south of the SNRS are occupied mainly by Somali pastoralists who rear mixed herds of camels, sheep, goats and a few cattle. Rangeland degradation is the most serious challenge for pastoral livelihood in Somali Region. Major reduction in the quantity and nutritional quality of the vegetation available for grazing in the rangelands as well as expansion of localized deserts and barren areas are indicated. Major causes of degradation include climatic conditions, causing drought and arid conditions, and human factors, leading to the overuse of natural resources. Livestock density and grazing patterns lead to overgrazing, which is one of the major causes of land degradation. Overgrazing results when livestock density becomes excessive and too many animals are grazed at the same area of rangeland, leading to degradation of vegetation and the compaction and erosion of the soil. The uncontrolled browsing of trees and shrubs is another aspect of overgrazing and a patent cause of deforestation, leading to flooding and siltation in adjacent areas because rains are no longer held back by the sponge effect of the trees and carry with them large loads of eroded soil. Out of the exotic tree species Prosopis juliflora is currently spreading and encroaching the grazing lands of SNRS and is causing severe negative impacts on the production and productivity of rangelands. This species is spreading at an alarming rate into best grazing areas. Other species, such as Acacia drepanolobium, A.seyal, Lantana camara, Partheniumhysterophorus, and species of Commiphora and Opuntia are also causing serious problems by encroaching in dry and wet season grazing areas. Low and erratic rainfall is characteristic of the rangelands, and pastoral production systems have always relied upon surface and ground water sources. Strategic water development interventions have significant impact in contributing to improving range utilization. In the SNRS Birca (Cistern) and Ella (hand dug wells) are normally owned and managed by individuals. The distribution and type of water points and watering schedules are major determinants of range use. Pastoralists in SNRS have various traditional natural resource management strategies, such as mobility and utilization, herd diversity, ecosystem knowledge, local institution, fodder assessment and defined grazing, indigenous knowledge on species and their utilization. These indigenous knowledges should be kept and integrated with modern rangeland management and rehabilitation coping strategies to sustain the range ecology and the livelihood of the pastoralists.

In Ethiopia farm forestry practice is becoming widespread particularly in population pressure-pro... more In Ethiopia farm forestry practice is becoming widespread particularly in population pressure-prone areas. Rapidly increasing population pressure has led to vast change in land use/land cover pattern. Land use changes affected the whole system of food crop production in the study area, Eza wereda, which is found in West Gurageland. Eucalyptus tree in this regard dominated the landscape of the region without planned land use in such diminutive land holding size. Land use competition between eucalyptus tree plantation and other food crops became a common feature of the study area. The study assessed perceived negative ecological impacts in three selected KPAs (Kebele Peasant Administrations) namely, Zigba Boto (kolla), Shebraden (woinadega) and Koter Gedra (dega). Purposive systematic sampling procedure was used to select the three agro-ecological areas of the wereda. In each selected KPAs 180 households were selected by using purposive systematic sampling techniques. Direct observati...

This paper critically reviewed the status of Participatory or Community Based Forest Management (... more This paper critically reviewed the status of Participatory or Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) in the case of Ethiopia. Ethiopia is located in the Horn of Africa between 3o and 15o North latitude and 33o and 48o east longitude. The country covers 1.13 million square kilometers, with a wide altitudinal variation ranging from 110 meters below sea level (b.s.l.) in Kobar Sink (Dallol) to 4,620 meters above sea level (a.s.l.) at Ras Dashen (Ras Dejen). The Great African Rift Valley runs diagonally across the country from northeast to southwest separating the western and southeastern highlands. This physiographic feature enabled the ecosystems to host a great diversity of flora and fauna resources. The flora of Ethiopia is estimated to comprise about 6,500-7,000 plant species; 12 per cent of these plant species considered as endemic. Forests provide numerous ecosystem services, products for human consumption, and habitat for countless species. Unfortunately, deforestation has occurred at alarming scales and its effects have threatened environmental and livelihood sustainability. In Ethiopia, for the most part, forests have been managed under the support of national agencies, often with the exclusion or outright removal of local people. No sustainable forest management program has been put in place due to lack of adequate funding and stable structural set up for the forestry sector. To combat this problem Participatory or Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) is accepted throughout the world and in Ethiopia currently. This is due to the recognition that communities are the direct users of the forests and no one can care adjacent forests without the full involvement of the society. CBFM is one attempt to reverse deforestation, and, by doing so, preserves ecological services and products that provide local communities with ways to secure livelihoods. CBFM has also grown in practice because centralized management of natural resources has often neglected the rights of indigenous and local communities that once inhabited rural areas. Unless a strong measure is taken to develop the already dwindled forest resources, no question, the country will turn out to be a barren land in the near future, unable to support life. Therefore, efforts have to be made to create conducive environment, such as clear policy frame work and other supportive rules and regulations, efficient bureaucratic procedures to encourage the involvement of the community in the forestry conservation and development activities. The relevant law on CBFM has to be in place. If there is an effective law that has a strong mechanism to enforce it there by correcting the situation with the forestry sector of the country will change the land use/land cover of the country. Thus, various stakeholders like concerned international and national bodies especially decision makers, planners, local government bodies, higher institutions, academicians, the private sectors, professional associations, development practitioners and the communities have to tightly participate in forest conservation and management areas, in order to scale up participatory or community based forest management.

Land had been controlled by the elite (kings and their trusted group) in Ethiopia. Private owners... more Land had been controlled by the elite (kings and their trusted group) in Ethiopia. Private ownership of land had never been known except for some historical incidents. The Ethiopian people had been struggling for centuries with the inequitable land holdings of the country and effectively removed the feudal system in 1975. The following regime (Derg) that came to power in 1975 under the slogan “Land to The Tiller” paradoxically dissatisfied the slogan and ended up in owning the land itself (state ownership?) rather than giving it to the people. The existing government, which controlled power in 1991, was expected to cure the age old land rights ills, among others by giving land to the people in tenure. Rather, it maintained the Derg’s state ownership of land and controls all urban and rural land as well as natural resources. Even though it is the state which controls land ownership, rural peasants and pastoralists are guaranteed with lifetime “holding” right that gives all rights exc...

Asian Journal of Plant Science & Research, 2021

Since recent years, conversions of croplands, grasslands or cash crop fields to eucalypt plantati... more Since recent years, conversions of croplands, grasslands or cash crop fields to eucalypt plantations are becoming common trends in Ethiopia. Reasons for the conversions are better return from eucalypt than crop farming. This study tried to assess the land use competition impacts of eucalypt plantations with other land uses in the Western Gurage Watersheds, Central-south Ethiopia. The specific objectives were to investigate households’ and experts’ perceptions on land use competition of eucalypt plantations; and to assess perceptions on impacts of eucalypt plantation and copping strategies. Samples from three woredas (districts) namely Cheha, Enemorna Ener, and Eza located in the Watersheds were used. These woredas were purposefully selected due to large coverage of the watersheds, extensive expansion of eucalypts farming and thereby high eucalypts pole production, incidences of serious competition of eucalypts with other uses, and the presences of road accessibility for data collect...

Trees, Forests and People

European Journal of Medicinal Plants

Land use and land cover (LULC) change is a common trend in all parts of the globe. The possible r... more Land use and land cover (LULC) change is a common trend in all parts of the globe. The possible reasons might be economic, political, social or cultural motives. In Ethiopia, most of the rural and urban people are highly dependent on eucalypts for various purposes, particularly, for fuel wood and construction materials. In the study area, Western Gurage Watersheds of Omo-Gibe Basin, eucalypt plantations have become the emergent and dominant activity next to growing Enset. The specific objectives of this study were to assess the land use and land cover changes driven by eucalypt plantations over time and agro-ecological extent, and to identify socio -economic, demographic, and environmental factors that facilitated expansion of eucalypts plantation. Landsat images from 1987 (TM), 2001 (ETM) and 2017 (Landsat 8 OLI) were used for detecting LULC changes. Digital image processing operations, i.e. haze removal, geo-referencing, contrast enhancement and classification, were completed using ERDAS Imagine 2011 Software. During the period between 1987 and 2017, the area cover of LULC types, namely plantation forest, Enset-based agroforestry, cereal crop and built-up areas increased in the study watersheds at the expenses of natural forests and grassland. The total forest cover declined in the study period from 1987-2000 and, then, increased from 2001-2017 as a result of expansion of eucalypts in bare land, grazing land and cereal crop land use types. The drivers for the expansion of eucalypts in the watersheds are population growth, 'Meskel' and 'Arafah' celebrations, land degradation and conservation, road development, increased access to markets, and economic factors, such as the growing need for fuel wood, construction materials, and growing need for money. The divergent interest of stakeholders, skepticism and debate around eucalypts are presented; call for further scientific investigations and management options are recommended.