Fine PM emission factors from residential burning of solid fuels using traditional cast-iron coal stoves (original) (raw)
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Quantifying particulate emissions from domestic burning in the kwaDela township, Mpumalanga
2018
Air quality in South African low-income residential areas is poor owing to high gaseous and particulate emissions from a range of sources including domestic burning. These emissions degrade ambient air quality, result in indoor air pollution which has a negative impact on human health. Solid-fuel use and emissions in a household setting are governed by several factors that vary in space and time. This raised a need to collect local reliable solid-fuel use and emissions data. The output is used to understand the relationship between burning behaviour, emissions patterns and ambient air quality. Characterising solid-fuel use and quantifying emissions from domestic burning is the first step to improving air quality in lowincome residential areas. Emission factors from domestic burning are sensitive to fuel characteristics, stove-operation behaviour and conditions, therefore, cannot be generalised. The absence of data on fuel use and variability in low-income residential areas introduces uncertainties when quantifying estimates of total emissions from the township. Unreported high uncertainties in emission estimates lead to the development of misinformed emission inventories. The study aims to quantify emissions of fine particulate matter from domestic burning of coal using field measurements. The first objective of the study is to characterise solid-fuel use and burning-device operation behaviour. The second objective quantifies fine particulate emission factors from domestic burning and characterises the operational behaviour effect of stoves on emission profiles. The last objective estimates the annual, seasonal and daily fine particulate matter emissions from domestic burning in a low-income residential area. Solid-fuel use responses from a survey undertaken in kwaDela (2014) and observation results (2016) were used to identify the dominant solid-fuel and burning-device used; the major household solid-fuel use determinant and describe burning-device operation behaviour. Stove-use monitors (K-type I-Button) data (for 2013 winter and 2014 summer) were used to characterise seasonal burning patterns in the township. To quantify fine particulate PM 2.5 emission factors (g.kg-1), isokinetic (2015) and direct (2014) field tests were set up to monitor and sample gaseous and fine particulate concentrations during a burning event. A Monte Carlo simulation model was used to compute the residential area's probable seasonal fine particulate emission estimates from domestic burning. Coal is the predominantly used fuel. Traditional cast-iron coal stoves are the most common solid-fuel burning devices used. Solid-fuel use, stove-operation behaviour and burning patterns vary within the township, however, the variation is insignificant. The majority of the residents have two burning events per winter day and a single event per summer day. iii Factors determining the choice of solid-fuel use are: (i) fuel availability (ii) demographics, and (iii) change of seasons. PM2.5 emission factors ranged from 6.8 g.kg-1 to 13.5 g.kg-1 of fuel burned. Fine particulate emission patterns change with burning patterns; high emissions are experienced during ignition and refuelling of the burning event. Fine particulate matter emitted from domestic burning per winter day in kwaDela Township ranges between 33.7 kg to 70.1 kg. Daily summer emissions range between 16.6 kg and 35.5 kg
… on Chemistry and …, 2011
The use of biomass fuels for cooking is the largest source of indoor air pollution in India, particularly in rural areas. The emissions of particulate matter less than 2.5 micron (PM2.5) and carbon monoxide (CO) were monitored during cooking and non-cooking periods in rural households of Jhajhar district of Haryana. The fuel/stove combinations monitored for emissions include various stoves types (Chulah, Hara and LPG) and fuel types (dung cake, crop residues, wood, and LPG) thus representing a large fraction of the total fuel/stove combinations used in study area. The CO concentration during cooking varied from 3.36 ppm for LPG to 157 ppm for crop residue/Chulah. Similarly PM2.5 concentration during cooking varied from 4.69 μg/m 3 for gas/LPG stove to 11000 μg/m 3 for dung cake/Chulah. Combining the results of time activity pattern of cook and PM2.5 and CO concentrations during cooking and non-cooking periods, exposure estimates for cook were calculated. Average 24-hour exposure for CO for Gas/LPG stove was 0.44 ppm, for wood/Chulah was 17.2492 ppm, for crop residue/Chulah was 19.34 ppm, for dung cakes/Chulah was 33.50 ppm and for mix fuel was 17.7167 ppm. The value of average 24 hour PM2.5 for gas/LPG stove was 25.67 μg/m 3 , for wood/Chulah was 222.69 μg/m, 3 for crop residue/Chulah was 393.39 μg/m, 3 for dung cake/Chulah was 774.5190 μg/m, 3 and for mix fuel/Chulah 376.40 μg/m. 3 The database can be used to have an estimate of CO and PM2.5 emissions for areas with similar fuel use patterns. In households with limited ventilation as is common in rural household, exposures experienced by household members, particularly women who spend a large proportion of their time in kitchen, have been measured to be many times higher than WHO guidelines and national standards.
Air Quality Modeling of Cooking Stove Emissions and Exposure Assessment in Rural Areas
Sustainability
Cooking stoves produce significant emissions of PM2.5 in homes, causing major health impacts in rural communities. The installation of chimneys in cooking stoves has been documented to substantially reduce indoor emissions compared to those of traditional open fires. Majority of the emissions pass through chimneys to the outdoors, while some fraction of the emissions leak directly into the indoor air, which is defined as fugitive emission. Indoor PM2.5 concentrations are then the result of such fugitive emissions and the infiltration of outdoor neighborhood pollutants. This study uses a combination of the one-contaminant box model and dispersion models to estimate the indoor PM2.5 household concentration. The results show that the contributions of outdoor infiltration to indoor PM2.5 concentrations increase with higher packing densities and ventilation rates. For a case study, under WHO recommended ventilation conditions, the 24 h average mass concentration is ~21 μg/m3, with fugiti...
Journal of Environmental Sciences-china, 2018
Household air pollution is considered to be among the top environmental risks in China. To examine the performance of improved stoves for reduction of indoor particulate matter (PM) emission and exposure in rural households, individual inhalation exposure to size-resolved PM was investigated using personal portable samplers carried by residents using wood gasifier stoves or improved coal stoves in a rural county in Central China. Concentrations of PM with different sizes in stationary indoor and outdoor air were also monitored at paired sites. The stationary concentrations of size-resolved PM in indoor air were greater than those in outdoor air, especially finer particles PM 0.25. The daily averaged exposure concentrations of PM 0.25 , PM 1.0 , PM 2.5 and total suspended particle for all the surveyed residents were 74.4 ± 41.1, 159.3 ± 74.3, 176.7 ± 78.1 and 217.9 ± 78.1 μg/m 3 , respectively. Even using the improved stoves, the individual exposure to indoor PM far exceeded the air quality guideline by WHO at 25 μg/m 3. Submicron particles PM 1.0 were the dominant PM fraction for personal exposure and indoor and outdoor air. Personal exposure exhibited a closer correlation with indoor PM concentrations than that for outdoor concentrations. Both inhalation exposure and indoor air PM concentrations in the rural households with gasifier firewood stoves were evidently lower than the reported results using traditional firewood stoves. However, local governments in the studied rural areas should exercise caution when widely and hastily promoting gasifier firewood stoves in place of improved coal stoves, due to the higher PM levels in indoor and outdoor air and personal inhaled exposure.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2011
Mass-based dose parameters (for example, PM 2.5) are most often used to characterize cookstove particulate matter emissions. Particle surface area deposition in the tracheobronchial (TB) and alveolar (A) regions of the human lung is also an important metric with respect to health effects, though very little research has investigated this dose parameter for cookstove emissions. Field sampling of cookstove emissions was performed in two regions of rural India, wherein PM 2.5 , particulate surface area concentration in both TB and A regions, and carbon monoxide (CO) were measured in 120 households and two roadside restaurants. Novel indices were developed and used to compare the emissions and efficiency of several types of household and commercial cookstoves, as well as to compare mass-based (PM 2.5) and surface area-based measurements of particle concentration. The correlation between PM 2.5 and surface area concentration was low to moderate: Pearson's correlation coefficient (R) for PM 2.5 vs surface area concentration in TB region is 0.38 and for PM 2.5 vs surface area concentration in A region is 0.47, indicating that PM 2.5 is not a sufficient proxy for particle surface area concentration. The indices will also help communicate results of cookstove studies to decision makers more easily.
Global estimation of exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from household air pollution
Environment International, 2018
Background: Exposure to household air pollution (HAP) from cooking with dirty fuels is a leading health risk factor within Asia, Africa and Central/South America. The concentration of particulate matter of diameter ≤ 2.5 μm (PM 2.5) is an important metric to evaluate HAP risk, however epidemiological studies have demonstrated significant variation in HAP-PM 2.5 concentrations at household, community and country levels. To quantify the global risk due to HAP exposure, novel estimation methods are needed, as financial and resource constraints render it difficult to monitor exposures in all relevant areas. Methods: A Bayesian, hierarchical HAP-PM 2.5 global exposure model was developed using kitchen and female HAP-PM 2.5 exposure data available in peer-reviewed studies from an updated World Health Organization Global HAP database. Cooking environment characteristics were selected using leave-one-out cross validation to predict quantitative HAP-PM 2.5 measurements from 44 studies. Twenty-four hour HAP-PM 2.5 kitchen concentrations and male, female and child exposures were estimated for 106 countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Results: A model incorporating fuel/stove type (traditional wood, improved biomass, coal, dung and gas/electric), urban/rural location, wet/dry season and socio-demographic index resulted in a Bayesian R 2 of 0.57. Relative to rural kitchens using gas or electricity, the mean global 24-hour HAP-PM 2.5 concentrations were 290 μg/m 3 higher (range of regional averages: 110, 880) for traditional stoves, 150 μg/m 3 higher (range of regional averages: 50, 290) for improved biomass stoves, 850 μg/m 3 higher (range of regional averages: 310, 2600) for animal dung stoves, and 220 μg/m 3 higher (range of regional averages: 80, 650) for coal stoves. The modeled global average female/kitchen exposure ratio was 0.40. Average modeled female exposures from cooking with traditional wood stoves were 160 μg/m 3 in rural households and 170 μg/m 3 in urban households. Average male and child rural area exposures from traditional wood stoves were 120 μg/m 3 and 140 μg/m 3 , respectively; average urban area exposures were identical to average rural exposures among both subgroups. Conclusions: A Bayesian modeling approach was used to generate unique HAP-PM 2.5 kitchen concentrations and personal exposure estimates for all countries, including those with little to no available quantitative HAP-PM 2.5 exposure data. The global exposure model incorporating type of fuel-stove combinations can add specificity and reduce exposure misclassification to enable an improved global HAP risk assessment.
Atmospheric Environment, 2018
Household solid fuel combustion for heating and cooking in rural areas is an important source of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) in northwestern China, which largely contributes to PM 2.5 personal exposure concentrations during the cold winter. There is a general lack of understanding about the personal exposure to PM 2.5 and to its chemical components emitted from domestic solid fuel combustion in northwestern Chinese rural populations. In this work, personal exposure to PM 2.5 was sampled using a portative device together with fixed indoor and outdoor fixed samplings in Guanzhong Plain in December 2016 for the purpose of characterizing personal exposure to PM 2.5 as a function of different solid fuels used in rural households. The average housewife's personal exposure to PM 2.5 concentration was 263.4±105.8 µg m-3 (1σ, n=30), which was about 40% higher than the values found indoors (186.5±79.5 µg m-3 , 1σ, n=30) and outdoors (191.0±85.3 µg m-3 , 1σ, n=30). High personal exposure PM 2.5 levels were mainly related to the ignition of solid fuels for heating and cooking. Correlations among personal exposure, indoor and outdoor PM 2.5 levels and their mutual ratios were computed to investigate how personal exposure to fine aerosols can be related to microenvironmental PM 2.5 levels and to individual activities. The results showed that households using electric power for heating and cooking were characterized by an average personal exposure PM 2.5 value of 156.8±36.6 µg m-3 (1σ, n=6) while personal exposure to PM 2.5 in households using solid fuels was twice higher (310.8±90.4 µg m-3 , 1σ, n=24). Solid fuel combustion products and related secondary formed species dominated PM 2.5 mass in personal exposure, indoor and outdoor samples. Motor vehicle emission and various dust sources were two other main contributors identified. Our results demonstrated that the use of clean energy could be an effective measure to reduce personal exposure levels of PM 2.5 emitted from domestic solid fuels combustion in winter in rural areas, which implied that the government should speed up the upgrade of the heating and cooking equipment fleet to protect the health of rural residents in northwestern China.
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
Most homes in the Navajo Nation use wood as their primary heating fuel, often in combination with locally mined coal. Previous studies observed health effects linked to this solid-fuel use in several Navajo communities. Emission factors (EFs) for common fuels used by the Navajo have not been reported using a relevant stove type. In this study, two softwoods (ponderosa pine and Utah juniper) and two high-volatile bituminous coals (Black Mesa and Fruitland) were tested with an in-use residential conventional wood stove (homestove) using a modified American Society for Testing and Materials/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (ASTM/EPA) protocol. Filter sampling quantified PM 2.5 (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 μm) and organic (OC) and elemental (EC) carbon in the emissions. Real-time monitoring quantified carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2), and total suspended particles (TSP). EFs for these air pollutants were developed and normalized to both fuel mass and energy consumed. In general, coal had significantly higher mass EFs than wood for all pollutants studied. In particular, coal emitted, on average, 10 times more PM 2.5 than wood on a mass basis, and 2.4 times more on an energy basis. The EFs developed here were based on fuel types, stove design, and operating protocols relevant to the Navajo Nation, but they could be useful to other Native Nations with similar practices, such as the nearby Hopi Nation. Implications: Indoor wood and coal combustion is an important contributor to public health burdens in the Navajo Nation. Currently, there exist no emission factors representative of Navajo homestoves, fuels, and practices. This study developed emission factors for PM 2.5 , OC, EC, CO, and CO 2 using a representative Navajo homestove. These emission factors may be utilized in regional-, national-, and global-scale health and environmental models. Additionally, the protocols developed and results presented here may inform ongoing stove design of the first EPA-certified wood and coal combination stove.
Environmental Health, 2013
Background: This study estimates the potential population health burden from exposure to combustion-derived particulate air pollution in domestic settings in Ireland and Scotland. Methods: The study focused on solid fuel combustion used for heating and the use of gas for cooking. PM 2.5 (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 μm) was used as the pollutant mixture indicator. Measured PM 2.5 concentrations in homes using solid fuels were adjusted for other sources of PM 2.5 by subtracting PM 2.5 concentrations in homes using gas for cooking but not solid fuel heating. Health burden was estimated for exposure indoors 6 pm-midnight, or all day (24-hour), by combining estimated attributable annual PM 2.5 exposures with (i) selected epidemiological functions linking PM 2.5 with mortality and morbidity (involving some re-scaling from PM 10 to PM 2.5 , and adjustments 'translating' from concentrations to exposures) and (ii) on the current population exposed and background rates of morbidity and mortality. Results: PM 2.5 concentrations in coal and wood burning homes were similar to homes using gas for cooking, used here as a baseline (mean 24-hr PM 2.5 concentrations 8.6 μg/m 3) and so health impacts were not calculated. Concentrations of PM 2.5 in homes using peat were higher (24-hr mean 15.6 μg/m 3); however, health impacts were calculated for the exposed population in Ireland only; the proportion exposed in Scotland was very small. The assessment for winter evening exposure (estimated annual average increase of 2.11 μg/m 3 over baseline) estimated 21 additional annual cases of all-cause mortality, 55 of chronic bronchitis, and 30,100 and 38,000 annual lower respiratory symptom days (including cough) and restricted activity days respectively. Conclusion: New methods for estimating the potential health burden of combustion-generated pollution from solid fuels in Irish and Scottish homes are provided. The methodology involves several approximations and uncertainties but is consistent with a wider movement towards quantifying risks in PM 2.5 irrespective of source. Results show an effect of indoor smoke from using peat (but not wood or coal) for heating and cooking; but they do not suggest that this is a major public health issue.