A ‘modern forgery’ of the silver tetradrachm of Seleucus Nikator in the collections of National Museum, New Delhi (original) (raw)
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The discrimination of medieval silver coins into genuine and forged have been performed using WD-XRF and cross-sectional analysis by SEM-EDX. The study conclusively shows that forged coin was manufactured by plating silver over baser metal alloy of copper and lead that caused segregation and brittleness owing to their reduced solid solubility. Silver was alloyed with a small percentage of copper or sometimes with copper and lead in original coins leading to age-hardening embrittlement in the ternary silver-copper-lead system on cooling. The presence of zinc and tin in some analyzed coins indicate copper was added as an alloy. All the coins were gold amalgamated with the help of mercury on either surface observed through WD-XRF. The silver/copper ratio indicates more than one mint. Preferential mineralization of more chemically active phase occurred as isolated patina shows the presence of oxides of lead, copper, silver, magnesium, and silica through XRD analysis.
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Although numismatics is being widely studied in India with respect to dynastic variations and through comparative analysis, both for tribal as well as dynastic issues, expertise of archaeometallurgists is seldom employed to study coinage. As a consequence of this, scientific information about the coins, which can further be used to reconstruct information like techniques of make, metal procurement before manufacture and a near accurate dating of samples is neither accessible nor available to archaeologists before attempting a scientific study of archaeologically significant coins. Most numismatic studies, therefore, rely heavily on iconographic analysis, deciphering the inscribed legends and comparative analysis of already identified parallels. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the significance of archaeometallurgy as a scientific implement of analysing Indian coins and its advantages for understanding the techniques and making of coins in the past. It also attempts to talk about scientific methods such as SEM and their utility for properly dating metals used in the coin and detecting plating techniques employed in the past.
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I am indebted, also, to Martin Price and Helene Nicolet-Pierre, Curators of the London and Paris collections, for the time they have generously given in commenting on many aspects of Seleucid numismatics, and for casts and photographs of coins which have helped clarify questions regarding numerous issues in this catalogue. I also wish to thank Harald Kuthmann of Munich; Gunther Dembski of Vienna; Hans-Dieter and Sabine Schultz of the Staatliche Museum, Berlin; and J. L. Djukov of the Hermitage Museum, Leningrad, all of whom have provided photographs, casts or descriptive material relating to my This coin has been at tributed to Antioch on the basis of its obverse type, which
AN INTRODUCTION TO ANCIENT INDIAN COINS
Coins are as important as the inscription in history. They confirm the information derived fr om literature. They are of various metals – gold, silver, copper, or alloy and contain legends or simple marks. The coins are very important to the reconstruct of the ancient Indian history. It is a part of archaeological sources .Those with dates is prob ably very valuable for the framework of Indian chronology. Coins are almost our sole evidence with regarded to the Indo Scythian and Indo Bactrian King. The Bilingual coins had served as Rosetta Stones in deciphering the Ancient Indian writings. The purity of the metal reflects the financial conditions of the Gupta Empire. The inscription on the coin indicates territory over which the rulers ruled. Some coin throws significant light on the personal events of certain rulers. The discovery of the same kind of coins at different places helps up in fixing the coverage of various kingdoms in ancient India.
The results of the observations and studying of long years by the author of the coins minted in Ancient Thrace and found over the territory of to-day's Bulgaria are submitted in a summarized form in the present study. On the basis of new numismatic materials found and of the region of their provenance are presented results of the study of anepigraphic coins with images of silenus and nymph and the more rarely encountered coins with images of centaurs and nymphs minted in the second half of 6th century BC and at the beginning of 5th century BC spread mainly in lands far from the southern coast of Ancient Thrace. Great attention is paid to the coins of the type „silenus embracing a nymph – concave square consisting of sectors of four small squares“ which are mentioned as coins of the type „silenus and nymph“, a type having dominated in the monetary circulation over the territories inhabited by the Odryssians , i. e. in the south-western part of the early Odryssian Kingdom. According to most of the research workers these coins were minted in Thasos or other Greek towns on the Thracian coast although only several dozens of such coins had been found over the territory of to-day's Greece. Only two denominations of the same are mentioned in their studies, namely staters and drachmas, and at present these researchers accept that all three of them are staters. Silver coins of the type „silenus and nymph“ of two lower denominations unknown at the time of the first publications of the author and bronze coins of the type „silenus and nymph“ of two denominations also unknown until that time as well as information about several thousands of coins of the type „silenus and nymph“ , all of them found in the interior of Thrace are published in the author's studies. On the basis of their concentrated provenance from the lands inhabited by the Odryssians along the upper and middle courses of the rivers Maritza and Toundzha, their minting for a long time by the early Odryssian kings and their use as a main local type of silver coins in the south-western part of the territory of the early Odryssian Kingdom the author expresses more than 25 important arguments for the belonging of the coins of the type „silenus and nymph“ to the early Thracian tribal minting, most probably the Odryssian minting and certainly to the minting of the early Odryssian kings (first publications: Топалов, 1998, 93-162; Topalov, 2003, 99-178 and recently Топалов, 2011; Topalov, 2012; Топалов, 2014, 43-261 and specifically 217-261). Coins of the type „dancing silenus and nymph/silenus chasing a nymph – concave square divided into four triangles by two diagonals“ and „centaur embracing a nymph“ – concave square consisting of sectors of four small squares“ minted in the same period of time are commented in details in the study. On the basis of the comparison between the main images of coins minted by the Greek towns on the Thracian coast and the coins with images of silenuses and nymphs and centaurs and nymphs and of important arguments adduced conclusions are drawn that the coins with these main images belong to the early Thracian tribal coinage and not to the early Greek urban coinage. We point out only one of the arguments, namely that out of the nine types of coins with images of silenuses and nymphs and centaurs and nymphs six bear the names of different Thracian tribes and three are anepigraphic ones and that coins with such images bearing names of Greek towns of the Thracian coast are not known although such towns had adopted the practice, since the beginning of 5th century BC, to add on the coins the name of their issuers to the main images of them. Two out of these three types of anepigraphic coins are still considered, without sufficient grounds, as minted by Greek towns of the Thracian coast.
Spread & significance of Harappa Script hieroglyphs and profiles of metalworkers of Bharata on Bharhut and Sanchi friezes. It is demonstrated by systematic data ininining that all the hieroglyphs/hypertexts on ancient coins of Bharata are knowledge discovery of the tradition of Harappa Script cipher to render in rebus Meluhha, metalwork catalogues, documing the contributions of artisans/seafaring merchants to Bronze Age Revolution. वृष्णि is a term in Rigveda. A Vrishni silver coin from Alexander Cunningham's Coins of Ancient India: From the Earliest Times Down to the Seventh Century (1891) (loc.cit., Lahiri, Bela (1974). Indigenous States of Northern India (Circa 200 B.C.E to 320 C.E.), Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.242 3). वृष्णि [p= 1013,2] वृष्ण्/इ or व्/ऋष्णि, mfn. manly , strong , powerful , mighty RV.m. a ram VS. TS. S3Br.m. a bull L.m. a ray of light L.m. N. of शिव MBh.m. of विष्णु-कृष्ण L.m.of इन्द्र L.m. of अग्नि L.m. pl. N. of a tribe or family (from which कृष्ण is descended , = यादव or माधव ; often mentioned together with the अन्धकs) MBh. Hariv. &cn. N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. (Monier-Williams) An identical ancient silver coin (perhaps produced from the same ancient mint) of Vrishni janapada ca. 10 CE with kharoṣṭhī, Brahmi inscriptions and Harappa Script hieroglyphs was sold in an auction in Ahmedabad (August 2016) for Rs. 27 lakhs. In fact, the treasure is priceless and defines the heritage of Bhāratam Janam, 'metalcaster folk' dating back to the 7th millennium of Vedic culture. It signifies a spoked wheel which is the centre-piece of Bharat's national flag. I suggest that the successful bidder in Ahmedabad auction should volunteer to donate it to the National Museum, Janpath, New Delhi as a treasure to be cherished by the present and future generations of Bhāratam Janam. It is a composite animal with ligatured elephant-tiger pictorial motifs. It signifies a skambha topped by a pair of fish-fins (khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint'.). It is a tiger (kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'blacksmith'). It is an elephant (karba, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron' ibbo 'merchant'). It is a yupa with caṣāla signifying a Soma samsthā Yāga. It is a cakra, a vajra in Vedic tradition (eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: erako 'moltencast' eraka, arka 'copper, gold'). arā 'spokes' rebus: āra 'brass' kund opening in the nave or hub of a wheel to admit the axle (Santali) Rebus: kunda 'turner' kundār turner (A.) It is a professional calling card of a metalcaster, e.g. dhokra kamar who is a śilpi, artificer of cire perdue bronze and metal alloy pratimā. सांगड sāṅgaḍa 'joined animal', rebus: sangaDa ‘lathe’ sanghaṭṭana ‘bracelet’ rebus 1: .sanghāṭa ‘raft’ sAngaDa ‘catamaran, double-canoe’rebusčaṇṇāḍam (Tu. ജംഗാല, Port. Jangada). Ferryboat, junction of 2 boats, also rafts. 2 jangaḍia 'military guard accompanying treasure into the treasury' ചങ്ങാതം čaṇṇāδam (Tdbh.; സംഘാതം) 1. Convoy, guard; responsible Nāyar guide through foreign territories. rebus 3: जाकड़ ja:kaṛ जांगड़ jāngāḍ‘entrustment note’ जखडणें tying up (as a beast to a stake) rebus 4: sanghāṭa ‘accumulation, collection’ rebus 5. sangaDa ‘portable furnace, brazier’ rebus 6: sanghAta ‘adamantine glue‘ rebus 7: sangara ‘fortification’ rebus 8: sangara ‘proclamation’ 9: samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'. On the VRSNi coin, tiger and elephant are joined to create a composite hyperext. This is Harappa Script orthographic cipher. The orthographic style of creating 'composite animals' is also evident from the following examples of artifacts: Terracotta. Tiger, bovine, elephant, Nausharo NS 92.02.70.04 h. 6.76 cm; w. 4.42; l. 6.97 cm. Centre for Archaeological Research Indus Balochistan, Musée Guimet, Paris. harappa.com "Slide 88. Three objects (harappa.com) Three terra cotta objects that combine human and animal features. These objects may have been used to tell stories in puppet shows or in ritual performances. On the left is a seated animal figurine with female head. The manner of sitting suggests that this may be a feline, and a hole in the base indicates that it would have been raised on a stick as a standard or puppet. The head is identical to those seen on female figurines with a fan shaped headdress and two cup shaped side pieces. The choker with pendant beads is also common on female figurines. Material: terra cotta Dimensions: 7.1 cm height, 4.8 cm length, 3.5 cm width Harappa, 2384 Harappa Museum, HM 2082 Vats 1940: 300, pl. LXXVII, 67 In the center is miniature mask of horned deity with human face and bared teeth of a tiger. A large mustache or divided upper lip frames the canines, and a flaring beard adds to the effect of rage. The eyes are defined as raised lumps that may have originally been painted. Short feline ears contrast with two short horns similar to a bull rather than the curving water buffalo horns. Two holes on either side allow the mask to be attached to a puppet or worn as an amulet. Material: terra cotta Dimensions: 5.24 height, 4.86 width Harappa Harappa Museum, H93-2093 Meadow and Kenoyer, 1994 On the right is feline figurine with male human face. The ears, eyes and mouth are filled with black pigment and traces of black are visible on the flaring beard that is now broken. The accentuated almond shaped eyes and wide mouth are characteristic of the bearded horned deity figurines found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (no. 122, 123). This figurine was found in a sump pit filled with discarded goblets, animal and female figurines and garbage. It dates to the final phase of the Harappan occupation, around 2000 B. C. Harappa, Lot 5063-1 Harappa Museum, H94-2311 Material: terra cotta Dimensions: 5.5 cm height, 12.4 cm length, 4.3 cm width http://www.harappa.com/indus/88.html masks/amulets Slide72. Two composite anthropomorphic / animal figurines from Harappa. Whether or not the attachable water buffalo horns were used in magic or other rituals, unusual and composite animals and anthropomorphic/animal beings were clearly a part of Indus ideology. The ubiquitous "unicorn" (most commonly found on seals, but also represented in figurines), composite animals and animals with multiple heads, and composite anthropomorphic/animal figurines such as the seated quadruped figurines with female faces, headdresses and tails offer tantalizing glimpses into a rich ideology, one that may have been steeped in mythology, magic, and/or ritual transformation. Approximate dimensions (W x H(L) x D) of the larger figurine: 3.5 x 7.1 x 4.8 cm. (Photograph by Richard H. Meadow) See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/01/multiplex-as-metaphor-ligatures-on.html The pellet border is composed of: goṭā 'seed', round pebble, stone' rebus: goṭā ''laterite, ferrite ore' 'gold braid' खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down). The railing for the pillar is Vedi, sacred fire-altar for Soma samsthā Yāga. There is evidence dated to ca. 2500 BCE for the performance of such a yajna in Binjor (4MSR) on the banks of Vedic River Sarasvati. The fire-altar yielded an octagonal pillar, which is detailed in ancient Vedic texts as a proclamation of Soma samsthā Yāga. Three hour-glass shaped vajra-s are shown in a cartouche below the yupa on the coin. Normally Vajrapani is shown such a vajra which has octagonal edges. kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi, kole.l 'smithy, forge' kole.l 'temple' It is a record of the performance of a Soma samsthā Yāga. It is Vrishni Janapada coin of ca. 10 CE. Cakra, pavi in Vedic tradition is also a vajra. Rudra is vajrabāhu 'vajra weapon wielder'; said also of Agni and Indra. ... वज्र [p=913,1] mn. " the hard or mighty one " , a thunderbolt (esp. that of इन्द्र , said to have been formed out of the bones of the ऋषि दधीच or दधीचि [q.v.] , and shaped like a circular discus , or in later times regarded as having the form of two transverse bolts crossing each other thus x ; sometimes also applied to similar weapons used by various gods or superhuman beings , or to any mythical weapon destructive of spells or charms , also to मन्यु , " wrath "RV. or [with अपाम्] to a jet of water AV. &c ; also applied to a thunderbolt in general or to the lightning evolved from the centrifugal energy of the circular thunderbolt of इन्द्र when launched at a foe ; in Northern Buddhist countries it is shaped like a dumb-bell and called Dorje ; » MWB. 201 ; 322 &c ) RV. &c; a diamond (thought to be as hard as the thunderbolt or of the same substance with it) , Shad2vBr. Mn. MBh. &c; m. a kind of column or pillar VarBr2S.; m. a kind of hard mortar or cement (कल्क) VarBr2S. (cf. -लेप); n. a kind of hard iron or steel L. Vrishni Tribal Silver Coin Realises A Whopping Rs. 27-Lakhs in Ahmedabad Auction 10 Aug 2016 Wed A beautiful silver drachm issued by the Republic of Vrishni People between 10 and 40 CE was auctioned off by Classical Numismatic Gallery at the Coin and Currency Fair that was held between August 5th and 7th at Ahmedabad. The obverse of this rare silver coin bears a standard topped by a nandipada finial with an elephant’s head and the forepart of a leaping lion below it in an ornamental railing. The Brahmi legend reads “(Vr)shni Rajana Ganasya Tratarasya”. The reverse bears an ornate 14-spoked wheel with a scalloped outer rim along with the legend in Kharoshthi which reads “Vrshni Rajana Ganasa (Trata)...” The coin is of a Very Fine grade and is Exceedingly Rare. While Classical Numismatic Gallery estimated the price between Rs. 1 Lakh and Rs. 1.5 Lakh, the final price realised in the auction was a jaw-dropping Rs. 27 Lakhs!