The Influence Of The Energy Factor On Modern International Relations (original) (raw)
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GeoJournal, 2016
Over the years the notion of energy security is gaining wider acceptance not only in day to day state practices but also in the epistemological framework of geopolitics as well as International Relations (IR). One may underline here the fact that energy is not only shaping interstate relations but also plays a role in generating 'norms' which in turn governs the practices of international relations. Some of the major approaches of IR discipline like realism, neo-realism, constructivism and neo-liberal institutionalism can be employed to study the epistemology of energy security. The realism and neorealism perspectives can also be correlated with classical geopolitics to underline the fact that 'accumulation of resources' and controlling 'strategic landmasses' are some of the primary drivers of global politics. Similarly social constructivism and critical geopolitics can also help in mapping accentuation of 'societal conflict' as well as 'resources distribution' which is taking place mostly in the so-called 'Southern part of the world'. The present paper is such an attempt to deconstruct traditional notion of energy security and to study them in the 'disciplinary perspectives' of IR and Global South as highlighted above.
Concepts of Geopolitics and Energy Security
Geopolitics is the study of how geography affects international relations, power and vulner-abilities. Rudolf Kjellén (1905) first coined the term, and defined it as the studies of the way geographical (and often also historical and social) factors help explain the power and role in international affairs of nation states. In classical formulations, the links and causal relationships between political and physical power over geographic space were emphasized. Halford Mack-inder (1904) described much of the 20th century's geopolitical thought, great power strategies, alliances and military events based on geographic and historic factors. Geopolitics was often considered a competitive zero-sum game played by nation states in their pursuit of power and security, and gains from trade and investment relative to other national competitors (Victor, Jaffe & Hayes 2006:4). Geopolitics was a study of the dynamic or evolving political structuration of space. Greater territory and more resources was the win for one and loss for the other. The outset was that geography (or nature) created various types of societies and cultures as their spatial dimensions implied different opportunities and limitations. Often rivers, mountains, forests, lakes and coasts were borders to human societies. Because geopolitical thinking was used to defend Lebensraum for Nazi-Germany, social scientists and politicians more or less abandoned the concept after WWII, claiming there was no geopolitical science anymore, only geoideologies, such as Nazism and fascism (Haushofer 1924, Bingen 2014). For more decades, borders and the established geopolitical structures were considered permanent sacrosanct. After the break-up of the Soviet Union, the market became more or less the sole mechanism for allocation of economic resources. Francis Fukuyama (1993) even declared the " End of History ". Nevertheless, a rebirth of geopolitical studies emerged in the economically and politically interdependent world of the 1990s, and beyond. Now the concept was adjusted to the international economic and political integration that had taken place, and included how political control over a territory influences power and political and economic outcomes through factors, mechanisms and institutions in the international economic and political system (Agnew & Corbridge 1989). Modern geopolitics became concerned with the political discourse among international actors resulting from all factors that determine the political and economic importance of a country's geographic location. " Relative gains matter, but so (also) joint gains from possible cooperation " (Victor, Jaffe & Hayes 2006:5). As part of geopolitics is geoeconomics and geostrategy. Geoeconomics describes and analyzes the distribution of resources in and between states, focusing on industrial capacity, technologic, scientific and administrative competence and capacity, finance and the flows of trade in space. Geopolitics is very much a geoeconomic phenomenon and vice versa. Any state's control of a given territory is in the end a question of " economic gain " – how to finance the costs and how to gain an optimal share of the values created or transmitted in/on that territory. Geostrategy has mostly been used as a military concept and describes plans for obtaining physical control of certain areas, or the capability to deny others to control them, irrespective of prevailing geopolitical and geoeconomic structures. Together they presuppose intentionality and are thus not natural phenomena. Geopolitics and enerGy The energy geopolitics of any region must be understood by both the size and location of own and other natural resources, how available they are, who controls them, their cost, alternative transportation routes, how regional and global markets balance, market mechanisms and regulations, political decisions, and prices in general. Furthermore, as national and international policy-making and business is intertwined, the state is not anymore the only actor that shapes political outcomes. The geopolitical role of a country is influenced by the scale and scope of the dependence it represents for other actors (businesses, countries). Resources affect national policy making by acting upon domestic actors, which in turn affect the domestic political system through associations, state structure and ideology and, hence, business-to-business and business-to-government relations, must be included in the analysis (Austvik & Lembo 2017: 663-666).. Energy and geopolitics have been closely linked in both old and new formulations. Countries have made and make national strategies and geostrategies to meet their energy needs, reach markets and secure national positions and interests. The securitization of energy policy have contributed to shape
Geopolitics and security of energy supplies
Concepts & interpretations of the security of energy supply (SoS). Existing indicators covering its different aspects of SoS. Geopolitical dimension: geographical & technological diversification. The EU Strategic Energy Review. Security of Supply as a key objective in the EU. Role of nuclear energy in enhancing SoS.
The Place of Energy Security in the National Security Framework: An Assessment Approach
Energies
The term “energy security” is used almost everywhere in economic and political discussions related to energy supply. However, different authors use different meanings to express the concept of energy security. Quite often, this term is used to give more importance or relevance to issues that are often not inherently related to energy security. Attempts to define the essence of the concept of “energy security” have hitherto not been systematic and are characterized by a variety of approaches, and some insufficient justification especially in the aspect of state national security is notable. Our contribution to the discourse development is the consideration of energy security as part of internationally recognized indices that are developed to assess the temperature of world security. A regression modeling approach to test the crucial factors of social-economic development that impact the energy security indicators is presented. The literature analysis and review of the world’s existin...
This month's Geopolitics of Energy is devoted to a discussion of a concept called " geoenergeia " , which is a neologism created by the authors, Ioannis Vidakis and Georgios Baltos. Noting that geo-economics, and of course, geopolitics, have been areas of scholarly research for a hundred years or more, the authors contend there should be a term, perhaps even a field of study, to describe the intersection of geography and energy. Thus, they have come up with " geoenergeia ". The authors explain why a geoenergic point of view can be useful in deciphering contemporary world events and use the analytical tools of geoenergeia to shine light on several historical episodes, both from this century and the last.
National energy security assessment in a geopolitical perspective
Energy, 2017
The possibility of ensuring the energy needed by a country is a fundamental requirement for the economic growth and social welfare of that country. The fulfillment of this need is particularly challenging for those countries that are characterized by a low level of energy self-sufficiency. The evaluation of energy security needs to consider different dimensions and is of the utmost importance as a benchmark to conceive and implement different policies. The assessment of the level of security should rely on science-based models that are able to track the rapidly evolving geopolitical scenarios, and to provide detailed information and quantitative indexes to policy decision makers. In this paper, an overarching methodology is outlined to evaluate energy security, in which its external and internal dimensions are considered and integrated: the security of the energy supply from abroad (external) and the security of national energy infrastructures (internal). Attention is then focused on the external dimension, and two indexes are defined, by means of a probabilistic approach, in terms of the expected value of supply and economic impacts. The methodology is then applied to the Italian case, considering different geopolitical scenarios, and conclusions are provided about the energy security of the country.
Energy Security in South-East Europe: Natural Resources as Causes of conflict or Building Stability
Balkan Social Science Review, 2015
The article will focus on the energy regional security complex of South-East Europe, exploring the potential of the pipelines projects to serve both as sources of fuelling conflicts and building stability in the region. The impact of the great powers and of the regional powers penetrating the complex, as well as pipelines diplomacy will be analysed in determining what is the causal relationship between access to natural resources and conflicts in the region, exploring both risks and threats to energy security. The key issue remains the energy security interdependence, both among the actors within the complex, as well as between them and the neighbouring subsystems and the great and regional powers.
Discursive Overlap and Conflictive Fragmentation of Risk and Security in the Geopolitics of Energy
Sustainability, 2013
As it touches all aspects of human activity and society in general, energy has become an object of discourse. Two main discourses have formed on the use of energy: risk discourse and security discourse. While environmental changes and oil depletion continue, a new application for the term security has appeared: energy security. This concept can be interpreted within the terms of risk discourse, which is oriented towards rational consensus and decision making, or as an exercise of power, sovereignty and hegemony. The boundaries between interpretations are often unclear. Thus, in an institutional framework that has fragmented principles, norms and rules, opposing discourses will overlap. Political agents and institutions deploy strategies based on these discourses. With this overlapping of discourses, the performative powers of different institutions clash, thus creating conflictive fragmentation in a governance architecture. The purpose of this investigation is to analyze the use of, replication of, and ambiguities surrounding the concept of energy security, so as to understand how and why these discourses overlap and the profound consequences that this overlap may have for present and future energy use, environmental negotiations, and political climate.
This month's Geopolitics of Energy is devoted to a discussion of a concept called " geoenergeia " , which is a neologism created by the authors, Ioannis Vidakis and Georgios Baltos. Noting that geo-economics, and of course, geopolitics, have been areas of scholarly research for a hundred years or more, the authors contend there should be a term, perhaps even a field of study, to describe the intersection of geography and energy. Thus, they have come up with " geoenergeia ". The authors explain why a geoenergic point of view can be useful in deciphering contemporary world events and use the analytical tools of geoenergeia to shine light on several historical episodes, both from this century and the last.