Study as a Road to Self-Cultivation: Understanding the Confucian Concept of Xué 學 (original) (raw)

CONFUCIANISM AND EDUCATION (Special issue of Asian Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2)

Asian studies, 5(2), 2017

Since Immanuel Kant’s seminal essay “What is Enlightenment?”, independent, autonomous and critical thinking has stood at the forefront of any “progressive” (and even any reasonable) theory of education. In today’s neo-liberal and globalized world, the common trend of making everything a marketable commodity has also affected this, notwithstanding the fact that the ability to establish one’s critical and independent judgement remains the very basis of becoming an autonomous individual, and represents a central pillar of democracy. As such, critical thinking has become a product that can be bought, sold or even stolen––just like its traditional breeding ground, namely institutionalized education. It may thus be time to mourn the loss of the critical mind, and so mark the sad end of a certain kind of education, one which gave a key place to the humanities. However, instead of grieving for such losses and memorializing the end of the European subject, who has obviously lost his free will in the whirlwind of the all-embracing market economy, and sadly died in front of the barbed-wire fences defending his homeland from thousands of unarmed, weakened, starving and freezing refugees, we are searching for alternatives. As such, we present in this issue another kind of education. Admittedly, the values Confucian education aimed to foster did not include much absolute independence, but it still laid emphasis on autonomous critical thinking and genuine humaneness. While many believe that Confucianism is incompatible with the critical mind and personal autonomy, this issue aims to show that this wide-spread prejudice is rooted in a lack of knowledge. The most common image of Confucianism is that it was advocating a strict, rigid and hierarchically structured society based on the absolute obedience of those at the subordinate levels of the system, and, analogously, on absolute power of their superiors. However, we would like to present another Picture of Confucian education, one that is more academically justified and closer to the truth. It is important to recall that this model was originally, and especially in the classical Confucian teachings, rooted in the principles of complementarity and reciprocal responsibility. Moreover, while the autocratic model of hierarchy, by which the ruler’s authority was absolute and their responsibility towards their subordinates reduced to a mere formalism or symbolism, has undeniably held sway in Chinese history, we must also bear in mind that Confucianism in its role as the state doctrine represented the interests of the ruling class, and as such was defined by legalistic elements that are not found in original Confucianism. We must not forget that hierarchic structures are also present in Western democratic systems, and most importantly, authority based on experience, knowledge and abilities is not necessarily a negative ideal, or a threat to individual autonomy. The Confucian classics stress the important role of ideational and axiological elements, like rituality, relational ethics, the virtues of humaneness and justice, and the crucial role of education as a basic means of cultivating and thus improving (inborn) humaneness in order to achieve progress and social development. While they also lay stress on the so-called “Six Arts”—ritual, music, archery, chariot-riding, calligraphy, and computation—it is clear that the Confucian classics see morality as the most important subject. Confucian didactic methods are rather remarkable. Like Confucius, a Confucian teacher never lectures at length on a subject. Instead, he or she poses questions, quotes passages from the classical works, or applies fitting analogies, and then waits for the students to find the right answers “independently”––by themselves. According to the Analects, Confucius pointed out that thinking without learning is blind, and learning without thinking dangerous. Besides, he also asserted that attacking the views of others is harmful. This tolerance is based on a notion of moral autonomy, which is typical for the Confucian ideal personality, and implicit in most of the Confucian discourses. As such, promoting education is one of the most important Confucian values, and it is better to educate one’s children than to give them wealth. However, education is not only the wealth of a person, but also that of the cultures and societies he or she lives within. It is the most valuable inheritance we can give future generations. Moreover, in today’s globalized world, in which different traditions can interact and learn from each other, this kind of inheritance can be exchanged, combined, synthesized and thus enriched. Therefore, this special issue wishes to present different approaches to achieving and preserving this, in the West, at least, hidden treasure. It also aims to raise awareness regarding a particular, culturally and historically conditioned model of institutions, didactic structures and axiological priorities, which differs profoundly from traditional Euro-American educational models.

Learning from the Confucians: Learning from the Past

Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 2008

A distinguishing characteristic of Confucianism is its emphasis on learning (xue), is a key element in moral self cultivation. This paper discusses why learning from the experiences of those in the past is important in Confucian learning.

A Confucian Perspective of Self-Cultivation in Learning: Its Implications for Self-Directed Learning

This article explores a Confucian perspective of self-cultivation in learning and its implications for self-directed learning. Focussing on two key Confucian texts, Xueji (Record of Learning) and Xunzi, this essay expounds the purpose, content, process and essence of self-cultivation in learning. From a Confucian viewpoint, self-cultivation is aimed at morally transforming the learners so that they can realise the Way (dao). The learning process involves being committed to studying, improving oneself by observing rituals and living ethically, and being guided by one's teacher. Throughout the learning process, both the independence and interdependence of the self are emphasised. The article further discusses two major implications from a Confucian interpretation of self-cultivation in learning for self-directed learning. What is recommended is a model of self-directed learning that is underpinned by a shared moral vision of the good and underscores the collective resources and wisdom to promote individual and group learning.

Editor's Foreword: Confucianism and Education

Since Immanuel Kant's seminal essay " What is Enlightenment? " , independent, autonomous and critical thinking has stood at the forefront of any " progressive " (and even any reasonable) theory of education. In today's neo-liberal and globalized world, the common trend of making everything a marketable commodity has also affected this, notwithstanding the fact that the ability to establish one's critical and independent judgement remains the very basis of becoming an autonomous individual, and represents a central pillar of democracy. As such, critical thinking has become a product that can be bought, sold or even stolen––just like its traditional breeding ground, namely institutionalized education. It may thus be time to mourn the loss of the critical mind, and so mark the sad end of a certain kind of education, one which gave a key place to the humanities. However, instead of grieving for such losses and memorializing the end of the European subject, who has obviously lost his free will in the whirlwind of the all-embracing market economy, and sadly died in front of the barbed-wire fences defending his homeland from thousands of unarmed, weakened, starving and freezing refugees, we are searching for alternatives. As such, we present in this issue another kind of education. Admittedly, the values Confucian education aimed to foster did not include much absolute independence, but it still laid emphasis on autonomous critical thinking and genuine humaneness. While many believe that Confucianism is incompatible with the critical mind and personal autonomy, this issue aims to show that this widespread prejudice is rooted in a lack of knowledge. The most common image of Confucianism is that it was advocating a strict, rigid and hierarchically structured society based on the absolute obedience of those at the subordinate levels of the system, and, analogously, on absolute power of their superiors. However, we would like to present another picture of Confucian education, one that is more academically justified and closer to the truth. It is important to recall that this model was originally, and especially in the classical Confucian teachings, rooted in the principles of complementarity and reciprocal responsibility.

Confucian Moral Education in the Ta Hsueh and the Analects

Prajñā Vihāra: Journal of Philosophy and Religion, 2020

Confucian philosophy has always considered education as a mechanism to improve the quality of life in society. The Confucian classic, Ta Hsueh and the Analects emphasize this pivotal role of education. The ethics of education and life in the family also has a deep impact on government and business enterprises. Each one plays assigned roles and lives by the rules that govern his or her station in social life. The ninth chapter of the Ta Shueh teaches that "correct deportment" can rectify a whole country. Projecting the ethics of the family to the social order and extending the ethos of particular cultural practices to the global community, however, poses certain problems. The scope of the latter is much more extensive than the family and broader than the cultural practices of particular nation states. When family relations are preferred over that of others, authoritarian political power will not be too far behind. This paper is an investigation of the nature and limits of Confucian educational philosophy and its influence on society against the backdrop of globalization.

Education as a Human Right: a Confucian Perspective (Philosophy East & West 67.1)

Joseph Chan has shown persuasively that, in a Confucian society, rights should exist as a “fallback apparatus.” I argue that in his philosophical framework, education must be a human right. Education is vital to the Confucian conception of the good life. Its significance far exceeds the instrumental value for political purposes. Any contemporary Confucian society must take education as a human right. Accepting such a fundamental right strengthens Chan’s Confucian perfectionism.

Jiaohua, an Educational Practice in the “Confucian” Compan

China Perspectives, 2022

Based on fieldwork carried out between 2016 and 2020 in three Chinese private companies, this article analyses the implementation of jiaohua, a key idea in Confucianism, within a “Confucian” company. In the first two sections, I analyse the main measures put in place by this type of company in their attempt to model and transform the behaviour and state of mind of their employees. I then study the way in which the educational vocation of these entrepreneurs fits into an educational project supported by the authorities at the national level, the aim of which is to create a morally sound citizen. Taking account of the current sociopolitical context in China, it might be considered that the commitment of certain private entrepreneurs to the promotion of a “Confucian education” reflects their contribution to the making of the modern citizen that the state desires, as well as their conviction that Confucianism offers resources that will enable the construction of a Chinese capitalist ethic.

Confucianism and Ethics in the Western Philosophical Tradition 1: Foundational Concepts

Confucianism conceives of persons as being necessarily interdependent, defining personhood in terms of the various roles one embodies and that are established by the relationships basic to one’s life. By way of contrast, the Western philosophical tradition has predominantly defined persons in terms of intrinsic characteristics not thought to depend on others. This more strictly and explicitly individualistic concept of personhood contrasts with the Confucian idea that one becomes a person because of others; where one is never a person independently or in and of oneself but develops into one only in community. This article surveys some differences between Confucian and Western ideas of self and their connection to ethics mainly in light of the relational self of the Confucian Analects and Mencius. A Philosophy Compass article called Confucianism and Ethics in the Western Philosophical Tradition: A Comparative Analysis of Personhood (CEWII) will follow, that examines how the more individualistic way of conceiving of personhood in the West has had moral and political implications that differ, and even conflict, with those of Confucianism.

Confucian Learning: An Attempt at Addressing a Disordered Society

Confucius’ development of a comprehensive moral and ethical framework should be considered a deliberate and effective response to the societal conditions of his time. Amid the chaos and disorder which resulted from the Warring States period, Confucius provided a philosophical foundation of morality for both the individual and the state. The core principles of Confucianism were not simply abstract ideals, but rather practical guidelines, designed to encourage both ethical conduct and governance within his society. Confucius sought to revise his society by utilizing his ideals as functional responses to the complications of his society.