Building Materials and Architectural Details of Natural Stone used in the 13th Century Castle Buildings of King Daniel in the City of Chełm (original) (raw)
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Architectural Studies, 2019
Materials obtained during archaeological excavations on the place of castle in the city of Cholm (today Chełm in Poland), in the area of king Daniel's 13th century residential complex, have been subject to examination. They are in the forms of bricks and glazed tiles, as well as sizeable shapeless and purposeless accumulations indicating post-manufacturing remains. The materials are white, green and multicolored. They refer to Halychian alabasters and green glaukonitite from Cholm, which were originally used there. The examination of white materials was performed. The conducted examination indicated that the materials in question were manufactured using other than ceramic technologies, but similar to the ones used to produce silicate materials nowadays. As raw materials, chalk and biogenic silica obtained from a horsetail were used. The petrification procedure was conducted in hydrothermal conditions. As a result a material structurally similar to marble was obtained.
Archeologia dell’Architettura , 2021
Early medieval monumental buildings in Poland, east of the river Vistula, are very scarce. The earliest, dating back to the beginning of the 11th century, appears to be a stone palatium and rotunda on the Castle Hill in Przemyśl. Much later, starting in the 13th century, brick was introduced for building purposes. Important evidence for tracking changes in the evolution of building materials and techniques, particularly in the transition from stone to brick, is provided by research on the Cathedral Hill in Chełm. Chełm was the centre of the Galych-Volyn Duchy from the 13th century. In that century it was rebuilt by Prince Daniel Romanowich, and it became his main residence, as well as the real capital of the Galych-Volyn Princedom. Despite the efforts of scholars, questions relating to the original plan of the residential complex, as well its evolution in time, remained unresolved for many years. Interdisciplinary studies resulting from two projects, carried out in 2010-2018, make it possible to present a hypothesis regarding the Chełm residential complex, including its transformations over time. Studies carried out in Chełm give us the opportunity to follow the evolution of building materials and techniques, from opus quadratum – through rubble masonry, a combination of materials (stone-brick-wood), to the use of brick only – which was observed for example in the Chełm basilica, founded around the middle of the 13th century. Detailed analyses showed that the main material used in the construction of residential buildings was sandstone, including green glauconitite. The organisers of the building projects recruited highly skilled builders who were experienced in using the stone available in the Chełm region. According to our research, the fundamental changes in monumental buildings, sited east of the Vistula River, took place in a relatively short period of time – between ca. 1240 and 1253. So far, Chełm has provided the earliest evidence of the use of Romanesque brick in secular and religious architecture. Therefore, the discoveries in Chełm are a convenient starting-point for researchers interested in the beginnings of brick architecture in central Europe.
2021
The Koło castle (Wielkopolskie voivodeship) is the best-preserved royal stronghold in the broadly defined historical province of Wielkopolska (Greater Poland). The castle owes this status not so much to the scale of the structures preserved to this day (i.e., ruins of the bergfried; the west curtain walls, still visible today in full length and considerable height; the greater part of the north curtain wall; and a section of the south one), but rather to the dilapidated conditio of other castles founded by Polish monarchs. For a number of years (1977–1983), the Koło castle was subjected to archaeological research led by Łucja Pawlicka-Nowak (Regional Museum in Konin). Among other things, the excavations uncovered the residential tower discussed in this paper. The excavations at the time covered the western half of the building’s interior, both of its outer southern corners, and the north-western area. The research was resumed in 2019, and the authors of this paper faced the challenge of verifying the earlier fieldwork, the extent of which was very wide and not fully documented. The investigations presented here shed completely new light both on the construction history of the Koło castle, and the issues concerning its chronology, which, in the light of current research, would have been as follows: Casimir the Great acquires the village and founds the town of Koło in 1362; the construction of the castle commences and the work on the site of the residential tower quickly progresses following 1365 (or 1367); the monarch dies in autumn 1370, before or shortly after the unfinished castle is consumed by fire. The article concludes with a chapter showing the Koło tower against the background of similar structures in Europe.
In this paper, we use a set of methods applied for geosciences to reveal the provenance of raw materials and historical aspects of technology of lime production from the post-Cistercian church (southwestern Poland). Two types of building stones (mica schists and sandstones) and two groups of mortars, related with two different construction phases (Gothic and Baroque), were used for construction of the church façade. Principal difference between binding materials involves the presence of Mg-rich phase within Baroque mortars as a result of carbonation of a dolomitic lime whereas Gothic mortars are devoid of hydromagnesite. Mineral composition of the fillers of both mortars is similar, suggesting the same origin represented by local eluvium. Binders of studied mortars are composed of calcite and/or hydromagnesite and rich in lime lumps suggesting incomplete calcination. Studied mortars are weathered which is manifested by presence of gypsum. However, there is no evidence of commonly occurring Mg-rich secondary phases within Baroque mortar probably due to higher solubility of these salts comparing to gypsum. Mineralogical study combined with archeological and geological information enables us to indicate potential sources for the studied building materials. Metamorphic rocks, prevailing within the façade, come from abandoned quarries located in the closest vicinity of the church, whereas sandstones were acquired from the deposits located at a distance of tens of kilometers from the Kamieniec Ząbkowicki. Raw materials used for lime burning were gathered from Przeworno (Gothic mortars) and Złoty Stok area (Baroque mortars) located approximately 25–30 and 12 km from studied church.
European archaeology of the last decades tends to focus on the subject of distant contacts – the exchange of goods and ideas – and the influence they have on local populations and their development. One of the problems particularly often discussed in this context is the reception of cultural patterns of the Mediterranean by societies of the Central European Early Bronze Age. Archaeological sites outstanding from local cultural background deserve special attention when studying this issue. The example of such a location is the hillfort in Maszkowice (Western Carpathians). The site was subject to archaeological excavations already in the middle of the 20th century. Studies carried out there again from 2010 resulted in setting the chronology of the oldest settlement remains for 1750-1500 BC, as well as proving the relations of its first inhabitants with the eastern part of the Carpathian Basin. An absolutely spectacular result of these works was achieved in 2015, when relics of massive stone fortifications dating from around 1750 BC, were discovered. It is one of the few oldest examples of advanced stone architecture in Europe, excluding the Mediterranean, and at the same time the oldest construction of this kind in the areas north to the Carpathians. The wall is about 2 m wide and consists of an inner part built of smaller stones, and the massive outer face. During the excavations in 2015 the eastern entrance into the fortified area was revealed, too – a ramp cutting across the stone wall and adjacent clay terrace and flanked by large sandstone slabs. As regards the type of masonry and architectonical solutions, the construction discovered from Maszkowice finds the closest, contemporary analogies in some sites from the Alps and the Caput Adriae region.
Gesta XVII/2, 2018
The aim of our paper is a short presentation of main features of the fortified settlement located at the very edge of the OFCC area, in Maszkowice village (southern Poland). We shall focus consecutively on geographical and settlement context, range of the site, current state of research, methodology of excavations and material analysis, chronological framework of the site and finally detailed description of the OFCC settlement and its subsequent building phases.
Building stones used in Early Mediaeval Krakow edifices and geology of the area
Geology Geophysics and Environment, 2013
The early mediaeval period witnessed a considerable breakdown in masonry techniques and in architecture in the Polish territory: the application of stone and developing of skills of shaping rocks into regular cuboid stone bricks. Only local stones quarried within a distance of ca. 15 km from Krakow were used in early mediaeval edifices in the city. They were: two varieties of limestones (Upper Jurassic) and three varieties of sandstones of the Carpathian flysch (Cretaceous to Palaeogene). Sedimentary environments (facies) and post-sedimentary processes determined compactness, block divisibility and workability of stones, which, further on, determined their application. Thin bedded sandstone and platy limestone yielded easily workable and relatively small (few to a dozen of centimetres in length) and quite regular bricks used in the earliest buildings. Rocky limestone was a source of irregularly shaped clumps used initially as a filler of walls erected in the opus emplectum technique. Later, it was used also for cutting larger (few tens of centimetres), more regular blocks. Bedded limestone was a good material for obtaining larger (a dozen or two dozens of centimetres) regular bricks used widely throughout the whole early mediaeval period. Blocks (2 or more metres in length) of soft dimension Carpathian sandstone were used for shaping and carving large elements: tombstones, columns, volutes, epitaphs, etc. Techniques of quarrying and stone working developed considerable with time. Initially, slope scree and stone from demolished older ramparts were used. Later, quarries reached deeper beds which yielded larger bricks and blocks. Stone sources migrated with time too. The earliest places of excavation were located within the city, e.g. on the Wawel, Ska³ka and Krzemionki hills. When those deposits were exhausted, mining moved to more distant spots.
Building stones used in early mediaeval edifices of Krakow and geology of the area
Geology, Geophysics & Environment, 2013
The early mediaeval period witnessed a considerable breakdown in masonry techniques and in architecture in the Polish territory: the application of stone and developing of skills of shaping rocks into regular cuboid stone bricks. Only local stones quarried within a distance of ca. 15 km from Krakow were used in early mediaeval edifices in the city. They were: two varieties of limestones (Upper Jurassic) and three varieties of sandstones of the Carpathian flysch (Cretaceous to Palaeogene). Sedimentary environments (facies) and post-sedimentary processes determined compactness, block divisibility and workability of stones, which, further on, determined their application. Thin bedded sandstone and platy limestone yielded easily workable and relatively small (few to a dozen of centimetres in length) and quite regular bricks used in the earliest buildings. Rocky limestone was a source of irregularly shaped clumps used initially as a filler of walls erected in the opus emplectum technique. Later, it was used also for cutting larger (few tens of centimetres), more regular blocks. Bedded limestone was a good material for obtaining larger (a dozen or two dozens of centimetres) regular bricks used widely throughout the whole early mediaeval period. Blocks (2 or more metres in length) of soft dimension Carpathian sandstone were used for shaping and carving large elements: tombstones, columns, volutes, epitaphs, etc. Techniques of quarrying and stone working developed considerable with time. Initially, slope scree and stone from demolished older ramparts were used. Later, quarries reached deeper beds which yielded larger bricks and blocks. Stone sources migrated with time too. The earliest places of excavation were located within the city, e.g. on the Wawel, Ska³ka and Krzemionki hills. When those deposits were exhausted, mining moved to more distant spots.
ARCHITECTUS, 2022
Przedmiotem artykułu są ruiny zamku w Kole. To jeden z najlepiej zachowanych przykładów warowni z czasów Kazimierza Wielkiego na terenach nizinnych w Polsce. Budowla ta już od XVII w. znajdowała się w stanie ruiny. Do dziś zachowała się wydatna wieża narożna z fragmentem trzech kurtyn. Celem autorów niniejszego artykułu było omówienie wyników przeprowadzonych w latach 2019–2020 badań architektonicznych i archeologicznych ruin zamkowych oraz projektu częściowego zabezpieczenia tych pozostałości. Wykonane analizy pozwoliły na konstatację, że budowę warowni rozpoczęto od wieży mieszkalnej w części północnej. W dalszej kolejności powstała wieża w narożniku południowo-zachodnim. W kolejnych kilku etapach wzniesiono mury kurtynowe, zamykając dziedziniec. W części południowej funkcjonował budynek przybramia. Zastosowane różne techniki budowlane prawdopodobnie świadczą o tym, że pracowało przy niej kilka warsztatów, które wykorzystywały rusztowania jednosztandarowe i przewieszone. Stan zachowania ruin był na tyle zły, że konieczne było wykonanie projektu zabezpieczenia fragmenty jednej ze ścian, co też wykonano w 2020 r.