Camels in the Rock Art of Arabia (original) (raw)

The Camel Through the Ages

A compendium dedicated to Dr. Abd Al-Rahman Al-Tayyib Al-Ansari
Volume 2.
edited by D. Alexander, S. A. Al-Rashid, A. Bonifante Warren, and J. Sisk

Al-Riyāḍ
2022

Camels in the Rock Art of Arabia

Figure 1. A camel being raided by two horsemen. Jabal Sughra, southwestern Saudi Arabia. (Photograph by Michael Macdonald)

In eastern Arabia, archaeological evidence suggests that wild dromedaries were abundant from approximately the early third millennium BC. 1{ }^{1} Their numbers are thought to have declined toward the end of the second millennium BC , possibly through overhunting, before increasing again after their domestication, which is thought to have occurred around the turn of the second and first millennia BC. 2{ }^{2} However, it has to be noted that evidence both for wild dromedaries and for the date of domestication in other parts of the Peninsula is extremely sparse. If, as the meager data suggest, the dromedary was domesticated in Arabia from an indigenous wild population, rather than introduced from elsewhere as an animal that was already domesticated, then it is curious how few rock drawings in Arabia show the hunting of dromedaries.
Of course, there are a number of pictures showing dromedaries being chased by horsemen with lances (figure 1). In the past, these have often been interpreted as hunting scenes in which the camel was the prey. However, the horse was not introduced into Arabia until the very end of the first millennium BC , some one thousand years after wild dromedaries are thought to have become extinct in the Peninsula. Moreover, these drawings are often superimposed on prehistoric images and are of a considerably lighter patina. It is therefore clear that, despite the raised lance in figure 1, these drawings show camel raiding, rather than hunting. 3{ }^{3}
In fact, from the whole Peninsula, only four clear representations of dromedary hunting are known so far, and all these come from southwestern Saudi Arabia. 4{ }^{4} The most famous (figure 2) was discovered in 1952 at al-Murayra, between Jabal al-Qāra and Jabal al-Kawkab, 5{ }^{5} by the Philby Ryckmans-Lippens expedition to southwestern Saudi Arabia, and was

[1]published by Emanuel Anati in 1968 from a black-and-white photograph. 6{ }^{6} The panel has drawings from several different periods, with more recent items superimposed on earlier ones. The hunting scene with the dromedary is part of the earliest layer and it can be seen in the bottom right-hand corner (figure 3). Immediately above it can be seen five men, from right to left (figure 2), one with an unidentifiable bow, one with a spear and a simple asymmetric bow, two with composite segment bows, and one with an unidentified object in his left hand, 7{ }^{7} carrying off the carcasses of two gazelles, which strongly suggests that the scene represents a hunt rather than a battle. 8{ }^{8}
Three spears are embedded in the camel, one in its groin, one in its side, and a thicker one apparently lodged in its neck. It should, however, be noted that these “spears” appear to have a slightly lighter patina than the camel itself and so could have been added later. There is also an unexplained hand running from the front of the camel’s withers to its forearm. 9{ }^{9} Two men with bows, and with daggers at their belts, are facing the dromedary, one in front and one behind, and a hound seems to be attacking it from below. 10{ }^{10} Thus, while the patina of the spears casts some doubt on whether they are part of the original drawing, the attack by the hound makes it clear that the camel is part of a hunting scene and is itself being hunted.

[2]Figure 2. A camel being raided by two horsemen. Jabal Sughra, southwestern Saudi Arabia. (Photograph by Michael Macdonald)

1. 1. The abbreviations C, h, H, KJC, KRS, KWQ, Ms, SESP, and SIAM identify inscriptions in the Oulme Corpus of the Inscriptions of Ancient North Arabia (OC/ANA) (http://krebn.oram.co.za.uk/ find/webאה/ann. Since this article will be concerned almost entirely with dromedaries, I will use the terms “camel” and “dromedary” interchangeably, and refer specifically to “flaccian camels” when necessary.
   2. Magie 2014, pp. 212-213; Magie 2015, pp. 272-273; H.P. Uerpmann and M. Uerpmann 2002, pp. 257-258; see also Neech et al. 2009.
   3. See Macdonald 1990.
   4. This is contrary to the statement by Magie 2014, p. 200: “Neck art from western, central and northern Arabia also indicates that hunting wild dromedaries was an important part of subsistence strategies in those regions.”
   5. I have used the provenance given to me by Charly Poliakoff, who recently rediscovered the panel; private communication, April 14, 2017. Anati 1968, p. 58, n. 12, quotes the provenance given by J. Ryckmans as “She fit Motammik, about 30 km north of Hmū”; private communication, J. Ryckmans to E. Anati.
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2. 1. Anati 1968, pp. 58-76; see also his pls. VI and VIII and figure 15. Unfortunately, Anati did not discuss the possible significance of the camel at any length. I am most grateful to Charly Poliakoff for very generously allowing me to publish his excellent photographs of this scene.
   2. A “simple asymmetric bow” is one in which the move is made from a single piece of wood, with rocks (notches) cut at each end, to which the bowstring is attached. This seems to have been the earliest form of bow used in Arabia and is distinct from the “composite segment bow,” or “Ankcomposite bow,” which is formed from two or more pieces of wood or horn and has a wavy profile; Ranning 1997, pp. 19, 89, and 138 and figure 44.
   3. This means that the two men above and to the left of the camel, one with a simple asymmetric bow and the other with a simple asymmetric bow in one hand and a throw stick or sickle sword in the other, may not be fighting but simply running toward each other.
   4. Sparasov and Stoyichev 2004, p. 152, seem to regard this hand as one of two spears “stuck into the thoracic part of the vertebral column,” which “don’t seem to have penetrated deep beneath the skin but hung intently.” However, this hand, which is much broader than any of the three spears, is clearly something different.
   5. As recognized by Sparasov and Stoyichev 2004, p. 152. Anati 1968, p. 62, considered the attacking heart “a mythological figure,” but it seems clear that it is a dog standing on its hind legs to reach the camel’s belly, with a long tail, two erect pointed ears, and jaws, below which are its front legs, slightly misplaced. Its body appears to have been filled out by scraping (as were the camel and the humans) but by packing, perhaps to give it the appearance of early hair. Note that near the top lefthand corner of figure 2 an identical bound, in an identical position, can be seen attacking a bovid. This, then, suggests that the showing of the camel most date from a period when there were still wild bovids in southwestern Arabia.
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Figure 2. (See also chapter heading). The earliest elements of this rock drawing show a hunting scene in which a camel is being attacked. Sha’ib Musammā, within the wider location of al-Murayrā, southwestern Saudi Arabia.
Photograph by Charly Poliakoff
Figure 3. (Detail of figure 2) The camel being attacked.
Photograph by Charly Poliakoff

Anati also published a much smaller drawing (figure 4) from the same area, which appears to show a “procession” of (from left to right) an ibex (?), two dromedaries, and an ostrich, each with a spear embedded in it, with two men, each with a lunate-hilted sword at his belt and holding a throw stick (?). 11{ }^{11} All the animals, even the ostrich, have been speared from below. 12{ }^{12}
Finally, there are two other, previously unknown drawings of dromedaries being attacked by men on foot, which are also in southwestern Saudi Arabia (figures. 5, 6). 13{ }^{13} In figure 5, the dromedary is being attacked from behind by a man shown in the act of drawing his bow. In figure 6, a man is stabbing the dromedary from behind with a lunate-hilted sword or dagger, 14{ }^{14} which, if the figure is facing outward (as is usual) is in his left hand; he may hold a throw stick in his right. To the best of my knowledge, these four drawings are the only rock-art evidence we have for the hunting of camels, wild or feral. By contrast, once dromedaries were domesticated, they became by far the most popular subject of rock art in Arabia. At the same time, within the western two-thirds of the Peninsula and up into what is now Jordan and southern Syria, literacy became widespread from the early first millennium BC until around the fourth century AD. Indeed, even the nomads could read and write, and this meant that they were able to sign and describe their drawings. 15{ }^{15} Thus, drawings of camels accompanied by graffiti saying, “By N is the young she-camel,” “By N is the camel,” and similar claims can be found all over the Syro-Arabian desert, wherever there are rocks to carve on. Of course, these nomads drew many other domestic and wild animals, as well as hunting scenes, battles, parties, musical instruments, and much else. These drawings, along with the graffiti that accompany them, give us a vivid picture of their way of life and provide a great deal of information about the camel and its place in their societies. However, after about the fourth century AD , literacy among the nomads seems to have disappeared until the twentieth century, and so, while nomads continued to make drawings on the rocks, they no longer signed them. 16{ }^{16}

[1]

Figure 5
An Halk bah, southern
Photograph

Figure 4.
Southwest

Figure 5.
An Halk bah, southern Photograph

1. 1. On the possible throw stick, see Anati 1968, pp. 73-74. In many cases, as the author notes, it is difficult to distinguish between a “throw stick” and a “sickle sword” in these drawings, but in figure 4 the way the man is holding it rules out the possibility that it could be a “sickle sword.”
   2. Anati 1968, pp. 47, 53-54.
   3. These were discovered by Charly Poliakoff, to whom I am extremely grateful for allowing me to see his photographs here.
   4. See Maxwell-Hyslop 1946, pp. 50-51, pl. V; Anati 1968, pp. 74-75.
   5. On the different scripts and the languages they express, see Macdonald 2009a, III; on the phenomenon of literate nomads, see Macdonald 2009a, I.
   6. It is not known why the nomads of Arabia ceased to write after about the fourth century AD; Macdonald 2009b.
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Figure 8

Figure 10

Figure 4. Four animals, including two camels, with spears embedded in them. Southwestern Saudi Arabia. (From Anati 1968, p. 54, figure 4).

Figure 5. A man shooting a camel from behind with a bow and arrow. 'Ān Halkān, at the southeast tip of Jabal al-Kawkab, close to Khushaybah, southwestern Saudi Arabia
Photograph by Charly Poliakoff

Figure 9

Figure 6. A man stabbing a camel from behind with a lunate-hilted sword or dagger. If he is facing outward, as is usual, he is stabbing with his left hand and holding what is possibly a throw stick in his right. ‘Ān Halkān, at the southeast tip of Jabal al-Kawkab, close to Khushaybah, southwestern Saudi Arabia.
Photograph by Charly Poliakoff
Figure 7. A large male camel (gmi), with its tail hanging down. Over and around him tribal marks (wussim) and other drawings have been added. The artist’s “signature” in Thamudic B script (ESK 222) is in the circle below the camel’s neck. It reads: idishi d i s h-gmi hh-hddy (The Hddite camel is by Dīs [or] The camel is by Dīs the Hddite). Al-Mubajjah 3, south-southwest of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia Photograph by the Epigraphy and Landscape in the Hinterland of Taymā Project (ELHT)

Figure 8. A young female camel (bhrt). The accompanying Safaitic inscription reads: i′mrlbnghmbngdihi^{\prime} m r l b n g h m b n g d i h-bhrt (The [drawing of the] young she-camel is by ’ mm rd son of Gbm son of Gd).
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King
Figure 9. A female camel (nqt) with her tail down suckling her calf. The Safaitic inscription reads: i′s′wdbn′zgd′−nqti^{\prime} s^{\prime} w d b n^{\prime} z g d^{\prime}-n q t (The [drawing of the] she-camel is by ’ ss 'wd son of ’ zgdz g d ). There is a second, damaged inscription, which reads: ldyl d y bn whbn (By Dy son of Whbn). Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King
Figure 10. Camel’s mating. The Safaitic inscription reads (KRS 2304): ims′kbni m s^{\prime} k b n bdb ll bn s′lmbnrf′rs^{\prime} l m b n r f^{\prime} r (By Ms’k son of Bdbl son of S’lm son of Rf’t). Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King

The earliest way of riding a dromedary must have been bareback, clinging onto the hump from behind (figure 11) and resting one’s weight on the crupper, and we have a rock drawing of uncertain age showing this (figure 12). Although this looks precarious to the outsider, it is in fact very stable and is the normal position for those who do not have the time to, or do not want to take the trouble to, attach a saddle. There are reports of Bedouin riding long distances, and up and down steep gorges, in this position. 18{ }^{18} In southeastern Arabia, bareback riders also sit behind the hump in a similar position (figures 13a and b).

[1]

There are many rock drawings showing riders seated over the hump but apparently without a saddle. Since the hump is where the dromedary stores fat, its size and strength increase or decrease according to its general condition and how well fed it has been in the recent past. If the dromedary is in good condition and the hump is rigid, riding bareback on it is possible, but not very good for the camel, and it is extremely unstable for the rider, since there is nothing to hold on to. It therefore seems likely that when a rock drawing shows a rider on the hump with no saddle it is simply a representation of a “ridden camel,” with no attempt at showing the rider realistically. Indeed, in a good number of drawings the rider is shown in impossible positions (figures 14-16).

Figure
Photogr
Figure
the bach hump; N
Northea
Photogr
Figure 15
saddle rr From th
Photogr

1. 1. Jaunay: 1909, p. 272.
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Figure 11. A Bedouin riding bareback.
Photograph from Raswan 1935, opposite p. 75
Figure 12. A man riding bareback on a camel. Note that he is draped over the back of the camel’s hump and holds a guiding stick in front of the hump; Ms 32-35.
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by William and Fidelity Lancaster
Figure 13a. A man riding behind the hump, either bare-back or on a hawlān ıˉ\bar{\imath} saddle not shown in the drawing.
From the Oman Peninsula
Photograph by William and Fidelity Lancaster

Figure 13b. A young boy in Oman riding on the crupper of a camel holding onto the hump.
Photograph from Pesce and Pesce 1984, p. 57
Figure 14. A rider sitting above the hump. He holds a camel stick or rein in his right hand, gestures with his left, and both his legs are stretched out in front of him. The straight line near his left hand is a fault in the rock, and the camel’s neck and head have been destroyed by a chip. From an ELHT site, Al-Muqayil 1, south-southwest of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia. Photograph by the ELHT

Figure 15. A crude drawing of a camel with a triangular back, on which sits a rider facing outward, but whose legs dangle over the front of the hump. He has a sword at his waist, which stretches out behind him, and in his right hand he holds a single rein or a camel stick. Oman Peninsula.
Photograph by William and Fidelity Lancaster
Figure 16. A tiny rider perched on the tip of the hump of a disproportionately large she-camel ( bkrtb k r t, in the accompanying “signature”), with his legs stretched out horizontally in front of him, and a sword at his belt. If he is facing outwards, as is usual, he holds a camel stick in his right hand (note that it does not reach the camel’s head and so cannot be a rein) and a schematically rendered bow and arrow in his left. The Thamudic B signature, part of which can be seen in the bottom left-hand corner reads: Ibs2hm⁡wb−bkrtI b s^{2} \operatorname{hm} w b-b k r t (By Bs2hm\mathrm{Bs}^{2} \mathrm{hm} and [by him are] the young she-camels), that is, the artist claimed all the drawings of camels on this large rock face, of which figure 16 shows only one. At an unnamed site southeast of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia. Photograph by the ELHT

However, other rock drawings show an interesting diversity of saddles and riding positions. One is a pad on the front slope of the hump (figures 17,18 ), apparently attached by a double (figure 17) or triple (figure 18) girth. However, if this had been the only attachment, the saddle would have slipped down the hump to the base of the neck. So, in reality, there were probably cords running from the saddle to the second girth, which runs over the crupper and to which the rider’s water bag is also attached. Note that in each case the rider has a guide stick but no rein. The T-shaped stick in the rider’s right hand in figure 17 and at his waist in figure 18 appears to be a sword, however unlikely the shape, since there are other drawings showing men on foot fighting with them.
What is possibly another version of this type of saddle is shown in figure 19. This is from an extraordinary panel of rock art south of Tabūk (northwestern Saudi Arabia), which shows a horseman, a chariot, and a man who has dismounted from his camel to shoot arrows at the chariot. 19He{ }^{19} \mathrm{He}, his camel, and the “caption” to the drawing are surrounded by a cartouche, which emphasizes that they belong together. The saddle is attached to the front of the camel’s hump and secured by three girths, as is the pad saddle shown in figure 18; this would not have prevented it slipping forward, so, as with the saddles in figures 17 and 18 , it must have also been secured by cords running to the band shown behind the hump. In the past, I have compared it to the wooden chair-like saddle used today in northwest Africa, which resembles that on a Yemeni bronze figurine of a camel in the British Museum. 20{ }^{20} However, it looks much more like a pad similar to those in figures 17 and 18 , and I would now consider those comparisons to have been wrong. Note also that a tassel is attached just below the camel’s head, something that is common in Arabian rock drawings of camels (figures 10 [on the male camel], 23, 33, 38).

[1]Figure 17. A rider on a pad saddle attached by a double girth to the front slope of the hump. The Safaitic inscription reads: / 'n 'm bn 'dy bn 'nhm bn q̄kr h-bkrt (The [drawing of the] young she-camel is by 'n’m son of 'dy son of nhm son of Qkr\mathrm{Q} k r ). Northeastern Jordan.
(Photograph by Geraldine King)
Figure 18. A rider on a pad saddle in front of the hump attached by a triple girth. The inscription and extraneous marks have been removed for the sake of clarity. The Safaitic inscription reads: / 'nyr bn qmr bn qhbn h-bkrt (The [drawing of the] young she-camel is by 'nyr son of Qmr son of Qhbn). Northeastern Jordan. (Photograph by Geraldine King)

Figure 19. A scene showing a horseman, a chariot, and a man who has dismounted from his camel to shoot arrows at those in thechariot. A rock drawing found south of Tabūk.
(Photograph Sung Hak Kim).
Figure 20. A detail of the scene in Figure 19. Note the saddle on the front slope of the hump with the triple girth and the girth behind the hump. The Thamudic B inscription above the camel continuing to the left of the archer reads: ParseError: KaTeX parse error: Double superscript at position 65: …g l h^{\prime} '̲ s^{\prime} y (By S 2hr{ }^{2} h r son of M’dbt and S2hr\mathrm{S}^{2} \mathrm{hr} is 's’te foot-soidier). The vertical inscription to the right of the drawing is in the Hismaic script and is not connected to the image. It reads llz2ms1bnbr′nl l z^{2} m s^{1} b n b r ' n d’l bwlt (By Ls 2 ms1{ }^{2} \mathrm{~ms}^{1} son of Br′n\mathrm{Br}^{\prime} \mathrm{n} of the lineage of IJwlt\mathrm{IJ} w \mathrm{lt} ). See Macdonald 2009c, pp. 160-181; 2016, pp. 332-334.

1. 1. For a detailed analysis of this panel see Macdonald 2009c, pp. 160-173, and Macdonald 2016, pp. 332-334.
   2. British Museum, London, inv. no. ME 1992-6-23,3; Macdonald 2002. For the comparison, see Macdonald 2009c, pp. 170-172.
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The most famous type of dromedary saddle is, of course, the shadād (figure 21). 21{ }^{21} This consists of a wooden frame, with a pommel in front and another behind, which is fitted over a cushion placed around the hump and then covered with woven cloths and a sheepskin. If the camel is also carrying saddlebags, the woven cloth from which the two bags are formed also runs over the saddle. The shadād can be seen in a number of rock drawings from both north and south Arabia (figures 22-26). It is clear from those drawings that are accompanied by Safaitic, Hismaic, and Thamudic B graffiti that the shadād was in use by at least the turn of the Christian era and probably sometime before. 22{ }^{22} It is important to note that, while the shadād fits over the whole hump, the rider actually sits at the front of the saddle, either with one leg hooked around the front pommel (figure 26) or with both legs hanging down, and so is placed not over the hump itself, but over its front slope, more or less in the same position as he would have had on the pad saddles discussed above (figures 17, 18). 23{ }^{23}

[1]Figure 21. The structure of the shadād saddle.
Figure 22. A man leading a camel with a shadād saddle. The inscription and extraneous marks have been removed for the sake of clarity.
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King
Figure 23. A man on a šadād saddle riding a female camel with a single rein running to the camel’s nose, and wielding his camel stick. Note the tassel at the camel’s throat; the front and rear girdhs; the saddlecloth, indicated by diagonal lines; the rider’s sword attached to the saddle behind him; and the tassels, marked by wavy lines, below it. Two of the three Safaitic inscriptions have been damaged by a crude modern drawing of a camel (not visible here). The inscriptions read: ll whb’l [illegible] hbn bn bn’l w hrs f h lt s’bn w rwh m- d hrs (By Whb’l [illegible] Hlm son of Bn’l and he kept watch and so O Lt [grant] security and relief from whoever is keeping watch); ll hg bn wrd bn ‘s’ bn hg w wgd s’jb ‘n w whb’l fng’ w hrs f h lt s’bn (By Hg son of Wrd son of ‘s’ son of Hg and he found the inscription of 'n and Whb′l\mathrm{Whb}^{\prime} \mathrm{l} and so he grieved in pain and he kept watch and so O Lt [grant] security); and (Is.H183) lrb′lbnl r b^{\prime} l b n 'bd bn 'lg bn 'n’m bn ‘s’ bn 's’ym bn h’s’d [illegible] byt s’hr mzbn w f h lt nqmt (By Rb’l son of 'bd son of 'lg son of 'n’m son of ‘s’ son of 's’ym son of H’s’d [illegible] he spent the night awake having been wrongly treated and so O Lt [grant] revenge). Al’Isāwī, southern Syria. (Photograph by the Safaitic Epigraphic Survey Programme [SESP])

Figure 24. A camel with an exaggerated shadād saddle. Wādī al-Zaydāniyyah, northwest of Taymā’
Northwestern Saudi Arabia
Photograph by the ELHT
Figure 25. A crude drawing of a camel rider on a shadād with a long, ratherbent camel stick. The inscription predates the drawing and was partially destroyed when the latter was made. Al-Himā, southwestern Saudi Arabia
Photograph by Michael Macdonald
Figure 26. A rider on a shadād saddle with a single rein running from the camel’s nose and what is either an extremely long camel stick or a lance. The Safaitic inscription reads: ls′lmbnl s^{\prime} l m b n ’ 'dm bn gyr h-bkrt (The [drawing of the] young she-camel is by S’bn son of "dm son of Gyr).
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King

1. 1. See Macdonald 2015 for a refutation of the unfounded theories put forward by Dostal, and those who followed him, about the development and use of this type of saddle and the supposed effects it had on the history of Arabia.
   2. For a description of Safaitic, Hismaic, and Thamudic B graffiti, see Macdonald 2009a, 38, pp. 52-55, 43-46. For a refutation of Dostal’s theories on the origin of the kadād and the late date of its adoption, see Macdonald 2015, pp. 61-63.
   3. We have no rock drawings of women using the kadād, nor would we expect to do so. There is a drawing of an Assyrian relief (now lost), apparently showing Sarosi, “quater of the Arabs,” fleeing the army of Tiglath-pileear III (r. 744-727 BC) on a camel, using a cushion saddle placed over the hump (London, British Museum, Dr. Dr. III), Barnett and Falkner 1962, p. 11, slab 7, pl. XVII. However, apart from this, I know of no illustrations of women on camels. Today and in the recent past, women either rode on the pack saddles (Macdonald 2015, p. 58) or in litters.
      ↩︎

Figure 21

In most drawings, the rider guides the camel with a stick, possibly the equivalent of the Bedouin 'as aˉ\bar{a} or mas uˉq\bar{u} q (figures 12,16−18,23,26,2712,16-18,23,26,27, 34,37,38).2434,37,38) .{ }^{24} In many, there is also a single rein running either to a peg passed through the camel’s nose or possibly to a ring (figures. 23, 28, 38). In some drawings, there are two reins (figure 28). This is very similar to the drawings of horsemen, some of whom are showing wo reins and some one. The third position for riding a dromedary is on the rear slope of the hump. The saddle used for this is known as the hawlānī, and its employment in everyday life is more or less restricted to southeast Arabia. However, because it is so much lighter than the shadād, it was also used throughout the Peninsula in camel racing before jockeys were replaced by robots. 25{ }^{25} It is curious that, even in southeastern Arabia, there appear to be very few rock drawings showing the hawlānī saddle. Indeed, there are a number from

[1]

Oman showing a rider atop the hump. 26{ }^{26} In crude drawings, it is difficult to know whether the artist intended to portray the rider on a hawlānī or riding bareback.
Figure 28 shows a drawing of what appears to be a sort of litter, in which the passenger is shown standing. 27{ }^{27} More traditional forms of litter, some of them very elaborate, are shown in a number of rock drawings (figures 29-31). In the days of battles between Bedouin tribes, there was a tradition among some of them, such as the Rwala, that the sheikh’s daughter, or another young girl, would lead the tribesmen into battle in an elaborate litter, which was treated as a symbol of the tribe. 28{ }^{28} There is one extraordinary drawing showing such a litter face-on rather than in profile (figure 31), which suggests experimentation on the part of the artist.

[2]

1. 1. Eating 1906, pp. 396-397.
   2. For a discussion and refutation of Docal’s theories on the hawlānī saddle, see Macdonald 2015, pp. 59-62.
      ↩︎
2. 1. See, for instance, Naywim 2000, p. 423, figure 17.
   2. There is no possibility that the artist intended to show a rider standing between the humps of a Hacirian camel. The head and neck see clearly those of a dromedary and it is clearly carrying some form of structure.
   3. See, for instance, Musil 1928, pp. 571-574.
      ↩︎

Figure 27. A camel rider with a single rein running from the camel’s nose, and a camel-stick touching its neck. From the Hismă desert of southern Jordan. The Hismaic inscription reads w/tyt byt bkrr “And Ftyt carved [the] young she-camel”.
Photograph by Geraldine King.
Figure 28. A drawing of unknown date showing a human figure in a form of litter with an elaborate saddlebag, controlling the camel with two reins running to its nose.
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by William and Fidelity Lancaster

Figure 29. Camels bearing elaborate litters possibly being attacked by horsemen and men on foot. The inscriptions are of a much earlier date. Al-Himā, southwestern Saudi Arabia Photograph by Michael Macdonald

Figure 30. A camel bearing an elaborate litter leading a procession of armed horsemen
An unnamed site southwest of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia Photograph by the ELHT

Figure 31. A camel carrying a litter as seen face-on. Al-Muqayil 6 South-southwest of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia.
Photograph by the ELHT

The camel provides food, in the form of milk, milk products, and occasionally meat, as well as hair and leather; it is an excellent beast of burden and a mount for long-distance travel in arid regions. However, it is of little or no use as a fighting platform. Unlike the horse, it cannot be trained to keep its nerve in a melee, and its rider is too high and unstable to protect himself, let alone to fight effectively. The camel’s height also means that it can easily be stabbed in the belly or hamstrung in the midst of battle. These facts have been recognized for millennia by the nomads who bred them and used their camels to transport troops to and from battles but not as platforms from which to fight. 29{ }^{29} Before the introduction of the horse to the Arabian desert, the nomads fought on foot, mainly with bows and arrows, swords, small round shields or bucklers, and short throwing spears. On the way to battle, they would ride two to a camel, one in front of the hump and one behind and, when they reached the battleground, the one behind (known in Arabic as the radiff) would slip down and charge into the fray, while the other stayed with the camel ready to make a quick getaway if the tide went against them. 30{ }^{30} When horses were available, the nomads

[1]still rode to battle two to a camel, but with the horse led beside them to keep it fresh. As soon as the battleground was reached, the radiff would slip off the camel, mount his horse, and ride into combat. The cameleer would wait on the sidelines, ready to pursue the enemy in a victory or make a hasty escape in the case of defeat. We see these practices illustrated in the rock drawings (figures 32-34).
As well as fighting, the ancient nomads of the Syro-Arabian deserts also indulged in camel raiding in ways very similar to those of their Bedouin successors. In these raids, a horseman would try to touch a camel with his lance to claim it as his prize, and this can be seen in figure 35, one of the most famous of these drawings. 31{ }^{31} Another (figure 36) shows two horsemen raiding several camels, including one carrying a litter. Farther south, there are many later drawings showing raiding (figure 1). In these, the horses are shown in the very dramatic, though stylized way that is found all over western Arabia.
The camel was only rarely used for hunting, presumably because it was difficult to make sudden maneuvers on it, but there are a few drawings showing a cameleer pursuing wild animals with the aid of one or more hounds.
31. First published with a hand copy in LP 325-326; republished with a photograph and detailed analysis in Macdonald, Al Mu’azzor, and Belovat 1996, pp. 467-472. On drawings of camel raiding in general, see Macdonald 1990 and Macdonald 1996, p. 76.

1. 1. See Macdonald 2015, pp. 66-69, 74-80, for a full discussion and refutation of the fenciful historical theories based on the uncritical assumption that ancient nomads fought on camelback.
   2. This can be seen in the Assyrian reliefs showing one of Assurbanujal’s battles with Arabs (British Museum, London, inv. no. ME (24928). Contrary to some misinterpretations, the Arabs are shown fleeing, not attacking, these reliefs were, after all, Assyrian propaganda, and the radiff is trying to ward off the Assyrian cavalry by firing arrows behind him. A close look at the relief shows that in each case the radiff is in a completely unrealistic position, and his firing is, as one would expect, entirely ineffective; Macdonald 2015, pp. 66-69.
      ↩︎

side them to keep
ff f would slip off
eleer would wait
or make a hasty
rated in the rock
bian deserts also
of their Bedouin
a camel with his
re 35 , one of the
s two horsemen
ther south, there
these, the horses
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a few drawings
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Figure 32. A battle between horsemen and men on foot. The camel, which presumably brought the men on foot, stands on the sidelines. The inscription and extraneous marks have been removed for the sake of clarity.
Wâdî al-Qatṭāfi northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King
Figure 33. Two men fighting on foot with their camels couched behind them. Note that, unusually, the reins run to a peg through the camel’s nose, clearly visible on the one to the left. The inscriptions and extraneous marks have been removed for the sake of clarity.
Northeastern Jordan.
Published here for the first time
Readings and translations by the author
Photograph by David Mayer
Figure 34. A cameleer and his radif. Note that both the cameleer and the radif have a sword at their belts and a full quiver on their backs, and that the radif has a bow in his hands ready to join the battle between foot soldiers in front of the camel. The camel has front and back girths, and from the latter hangs a water bag. The Safaitic inscription reads: I whb bn hfy bn 'fth-bkrt(The[drawing of the] young she-camel is by Whb son of Hfy son of 'fI).
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King
Figure 35. A horseman raiding a Bactrian camel and a dromedary. The Safaitic inscriptions read: (LP 325) I mtr bn 'm bn mtr bn 'n’m bn qdm d 'l 'wd w dbry l-h ‘b-h w brz h-nw m’ 'b-h m-mdbr f h lt s’lm w gnmt l-d d’y h-z’fr w ‘wr w brs’ l-d y 'wr h-htt (By MΓr\mathrm{M} \mathrm{\Gamma} \mathrm{r} son of 'm son of MΓr\mathrm{M} \mathrm{\Gamma r} son of 'n’m son of Qdm of the lineage of 'wd and his father drew the picture for him while he kept watch with his brother for the migration from the inner desert, and so O Lt [grant] security and booty to whoever reads this inscription aloud and blind and strike dumb whoever scratches out the carving); (LP 326) lms′kbnl m s^{\prime} k b n 'brqn bn ms’k wrw r 'y h-d’n s’nt s’rt mlk b-h- 'rd f h lt s’lm (By Ms’k son of 'brqn son of Ms’k and he pastured the sheep the year Mlk served in the great army and so O Lt [grant] security).
From al- 'Īsāwī, southern Syria, now in the Suweidah Museum (inventory number unknown).
Photograph by the Safaitic Epigraphic Survey Programme SESP

Figure 36. Two horsemen raiding several camels, one of which carries a litter. The extraneous marks have been removed for the sake of clarity.
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King

Camels were hobbled either with a rope between the two legs on one side (figure 39) or with one leg bent back (figure 40).
Bactrian camels have also been found in Arabian rock drawings (figures 35, 41), though so far only in the north of the Peninsula. They are not native to Arabia and were almost certainly bought (or raided) from merchants coming from Iran, Central Asia, or the Far East. They may well have been prized for their strength and almost certainly they were used to interbreed with dromedaries to provide hybrids. These are larger and more powerful than either parent and, in the first generation at least, are not always sterile. The hybrid can resemble a dromedary but with a somewhat elongated hump and sometimes a shallow dip in the top. 32{ }^{32} It would therefore be difficult to distinguish a rock drawing of a hybrid from one of a dromedary, and so far no such drawings have been identified. As yet we also do not know what Bactrian camels were called in the languages spoken by the Arabian nomads who drew them.
Occasionally, the graffiti mention that their authors sacrificed a camel, 33{ }^{33} but it is not known whether this was a regular ritual or one occasioned

[1]Figure 38

by particular events, such as the jezür sacrifice of a camel in front of the AbuˉDuˉrA b \bar{u} D \bar{u} r litter, the symbol of the Rwala tribe, after a successful battle or raid. 34{ }^{34} Other inscriptions say that one or more camels were dedicated (qyy) to one or more deities. Figure 42 shows two confronted camels, and the accompanying Safaitic inscription states that they were dedicated to two deities, 7t7 t and RdwR d w. Unfortunately, we have no further details about these religious practices, one of the frustrating features of a culture known only from its rock art and graffiti.
Figure 43 shows another composition of confronted camels. Here, however, the artist, despite working on the extremely hard surface of a basalt boulder, produced a drawing formed of flowing lines, which is extremely unusual in Arabian rock art. Other drawings show rows of nonrealistic, very large camels (usually males), with unnaturally long necks. These are particularly common in the deserts around Taymā’, where drawings of single, huge camels are also numerous (figures 7, 44).

[2]

1. 1. Gastfieur-Pilters and Dagg 1981, pp. 129-130, pl. 50.
   2. See, for instance, KRS 818 and 824.
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2. 1. See Janssen 1908, p. 168, and Mooil 1928, p. 574. In fact, Mooil says that the sacrifice took place every year, even when there was no war to which the AbuˉDuˉrA b \bar{u} D \bar{u} r was taken.
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Figure 37. A camel rider apparently pursuing a group of oryx with a hound. The inscriptions and extraneous marks have been removed for the sake of clarity.
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King
Figure 38. A rider using a šaddal saddle on a male camel (gml) apparently pursuing an ostrich and a wild ass (hemione; see Macdonald forthcoming). The Safaitic inscription (KRS 3291) reads: lmn′bnh′s3bns3krnhl m n^{\prime} b n h^{\prime} s^{3} b n s^{3} k r n h - gml (The male camel is by Mn′\mathrm{Mn}^{\prime} son of H′s1\mathrm{H}^{\prime} \mathrm{s}^{1} son of S′krn\mathrm{S}^{\prime} \mathrm{krn} ).
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King
Figure 39. A young male camel ( bkrb k r ), hobbled. The Thamudic B inscription reads: hh - ’ s′ms^{\prime} m ’ yy h-bkr It should read “(The [drawing of the] young male camel is by Fms 2{ }^{2} the ‘s’m’ ite)”.
Hufrat Burd, south-southeast of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia Photograph by the ELHT

Figure 40. A female camel ( nqtn q t ), hobbled with one leg bent back. The Safaitic inscription reads: ll 'lyn bn 'm bn bdn h-nqt (The [drawing of the] she-camel is by 'lyn son of 'm son of Bdn).
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King
Figure 41. A Bactrian camel, accompanied by a Safaitic inscription that, unfortunately, does not describe the drawing. The Safaitic inscription (SIAM 12), which is partially damaged, reads: ls′krnbnb[l s^{\prime} k r n b n b[ illegible ]s2ty] s^{2} t y b−h−d1nfhds2rs1lmb-h-d^{1} n f h d s^{2} r s^{1} l m (By S 1krn^{1} \mathrm{krn} on of H[illegible] he spent the winter with the sheep and so O Dushara [grant]security).
From northeastern Jordan; Jordan Museum (inv. no. J. 13943)
Photograph by Michael Macdonald
Figure 42. Two camels, which, according to the Safaitic inscription, were dedicated to the deities 'It and Rdw. The inscription (C 1658) is followed by a prayer to a third deity, Yt′\mathrm{Yt}^{\prime}, to protect the carving. The inscription reads: ll wqr bn y’ih h-gmln qsyn l-‘It w l-rdw fh yt’ 'wr m ‘wr h-htt (The [drawing of the] two male camels dedicated to ‘It and Rdw is by Wqr son of Y’ lh and so O Yt’ blind whoever scratches out the carving), unfortunately known only from a hand copy.
Southern Syria
Figure 43. Two counterposed camels drawn with unusually flowing lines. The inscription and extraneous marks have been removed for the sake of clarity.
Northeastern Jordan
Photograph by Geraldine King

This brings me back to a point made at the beginning of this article. It will be clear from the illustrations here that most of these drawings are not accurate representations of camels, but a compromise between what the artist saw in nature and the difficulties of representing this in two dimensions in a very unforgiving medium, for any mistake in a rock drawing cannot be erased or painted over as if it had never been, but remains to spoil the finished picture.
The shapes of the confronted camels in figure 46, for instance, with their extremely long necks and legs and continuous diagonal slopes from the top of the hump to the tail, are also, of course, quite unrealistic. There are also drawings where the camel’s back is represented as a simple triangle and its legs are unnaturally long (figures 16, 45). Yet, very often, these drawings are skillfully executed, as in figure 16, where the outlines are carefully drawn and then meticulously filled in by scraping the surface. Here, and in many other fine drawings, the artists seem to have been experimenting with ways of representing the subject in a non-naturalistic way (figures 39, 43, 44). 35{ }^{35} It seems almost certain that had these artists wished to draw a more naturalistic picture of a camel, they could have done so. But they chose not to, for reasons we cannot know, but that look like artistic experimentation.
This is a warning that we should not regard this rock art as in some way “primitive” or “banal.” Of course, some artists were better than others. Some could manage little more than stick figures, while others could draw complex scenes (figures 33-36) or artificial compositions. One of the many fascinating aspects of the rock art of Arabia is the experimentation of certain artists not only with different ways of depicting three dimensions in two, 36{ }^{36} but with what is essentially non-naturalistic art.

[1]

Figure 44. A huge camel carved on a cliff face. It is difficult to see how the artist managed to scale this sheer face to carve the upper parts of the animal.
Khabū al-Khōlah, southeast of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia Photograph by the ELHT

Figure 45. A camel with its back shown as a triangle.
Al-Karkhānah, north-northwest of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia Photograph by the ELHT

1. 1. Note that in figures 46 and 47 , the different parts of the composition are by different artists. 36. See the discussion of this in Macdonald 2016.
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Figure 46. Two huge male camels ( gmlg m l in the inscriptions) with their heads crossed, each carved by a different artist. The Thamudic B inscriptions read: (above the neck of the camel on the left): ll 'wr h-gml (The [drawing of the] male camel is by 'wr); (above the neck of the camel on the right): ll ‘b’ h-gml bnzb n z ‘n bn qdm (The [drawing of the] male camel is by ‘b’ son of Z’n son of Qdm); and (below the neck of the camel on the right): ll hm ( ByHm\mathrm{By} \mathrm{Hm} ). Hufrat Būrd, south-southeast of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia.
Photograph by the ELHT

Figure 47. Three male camels ( gmlg m l in the inscriptions) with tails down, each signed by a different artist. The camel facing them is not part of the composition. From left to right the Thamudic B inscriptions read; 1: ll m’s hh-gml [illegible] hh-hddy (The male camel is by M’s’ [illegible] the Hiddite); 2: hh-gml / tmlh bn ys’n (The male camel is by Tmlh son of Ys’n); 3: l ktln h-gml (The male camel is by Ktln);4: l 'lwtn h-gml h-rhwy (The Rhwite male camel is by 'Iwtn [or] The male camel is by 'Iwtn the Rhwite); 5: (to the right of the mountain goat): ll mrbl hh-'l (The mountain goat is by Mrbl).
From a site known as Al-‘Arabah, south-southeast of Taymā’, northwestern Saudi Arabia
Photograph by the ELHT