Stone tool assemblages and models for the dispersal of Homo sapiens out of Africa (original) (raw)
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The Middle Stone Age (MSA) of Africa encompasses the archaeological background for the origin, early evolution and global dispersal of Homo sapiens. This dissertation project used behavioral information attained from the analysis of MSA stone artifacts, in concert with additional archaeological data and new theoretical concepts, to assess research questions pertaining to key issues in current MSA archaeology and human evolution: What is the nature of coastal adaptations during the MSA and how did they affect the evolution and dispersal of Homo sapiens? Did modern humans in southern Africa possess a less complex behavioral repertoire and inferior cultural abilities before and after the Still Bay (SB) and Howiesons Poort (HP) as suggested by the influential “Synthetic Model”? To what extent can analyses of stone tools from the late MSA inform early migrations of Homo sapiens out of Africa? Lithic assemblages from six southern African MSA sites, dating to MIS 5 and MIS 3, provide the principle empirical basis to answer these questions. Concerning the first research topic, based on analyses on the site (Hoedjiespunt 1), regional (sub-Saharan Africa) and continental levels (Africa), the findings of this dissertation demonstrate the systematic, stable and long-term character of MSA coastal adaptations by at least MIS 5e. These behavioral adaptations had ample potential to affect the biological and cultural evolution of Homo sapiens. The ability to thrive in variable coastal ecosystems, and a general increase in behavior flexibility, constituted necessary prerequisites to disperse out of Africa along a mainly coastal route in a rapid and successful manner after ~130 ka. Lithic analyses at the main study site of Sibudu revealed the presence of distinctive, sophisticated and structured stone artifact assemblages during MIS 3 which are used to refine the concept of the “Sibudan” as a new cultural-taxonomic unit of the MSA. Comparative analyses suggest increased regionalization of lithic technology in southern Africa during MIS 3, the maintenance of advanced lithic technology and complex cultural repertoires, as well as dense populations in some areas. These findings reject the dominant Synthetic Model by showing that complex behaviors were well-established in human populations before and after the HP and SB. The results also falsify ideas of cultural regression and demographic collapses after the HP. Regarding the third major topic, the thesis shows how the phenomenon of convergence can confound the common approach by Paleolithic archaeologists to track large-scale dispersals of modern humans out of Africa by means of stone artifacts. The demonstration of an independent innovation of “Nubian” core technology during MIS 3 in southern Africa, with these artifact types having recently been used to monitor the earliest migrations of modern humans from north-eastern Africa to Arabia, provides a cautionary example that single core or tool types cannot adequately trace such dispersals on large temporal and spatial scales. Apart from providing new insights into the evolution and dispersal of modern humans, the thesis highlights the need for novel approaches in lithic analyses and a holistic bio-cultural perspective on human evolution.
Dispersals of anatomically modern humans out of eastern Africa, are reflected in the fossil record of western and northern Africa and the Levant. These dispersals are supported by genetic studies, but difficult to detect in the archaeological material record. The Multiple Dispersal Model (Lahr and Foley 1998), also known as the Biogeographic Model, is one of the prominent multiple dispersal models, related to the Single Origin and 'Out of Africa' Models. It hypothesizes that throughout the Middle Stone Age (MSA) there were several waves of dispersals out of eastern Africa. Periods of climatic amelioration during the late Pleistocene (End of MIS 6 to MIS 4) over the Sahara, Negev and Arabian deserts blurred geographical boundaries between sub-tropical Africa and the Levant. Thus ecological corridors were created allowing modern human range expansions across environmental gradients and dispersals into neighboring geographical regions. Archaeological research in eastern Africa, the Nile valley and the southern Levant resulted in evidence for lithic variability within the assemblages, although mismatching research methodologies hampered inter-site variability studies. The explanations for processes and causes underlying lithic variability focus on two main sets of interpretations, functional and social/cultural. The first set assumes a passive interaction between humans and their environment, meaning that they 'react' and 'adapt' to changing environmental conditions mainly (or only) by shifting and redefining subsistence strategies, toward which lithic artifacts are geared. The second set draws on behavioral and social dynamics as the agents behind variability and adaptability to the changing environment. The contribution of each of these sets of explanations to assemblage variability must be assessed through lithic analysis prior to a study of inter-assemblage variability. In this study, the past behavioral strategies of human interaction with their physical as well as social environments are inferred through the chaîne opératoire concept. Once this was done for each of the assemblage an inter-assemblage comparison was conducted and patterns of inter-group contacts were deduced. In comparative studies a common language needs to be created. In this study a common set of attributes and measurements were observed and recorded for each assemblage. These variables were then used to analyze the lithic assemblages quantitatively and qualitatively, to infer technological processes. On the premise that technology is a social product, the chaîne opératoire concept was used to interpret behavioral processes and choices made by the knappers. These were inferred from the quantified techno-typological traits of the studied assemblages. The first article outlines interactions between the Nile valley and Ethiopia. The Khormusan industry is a discrete Nile Valley lithic tradition. The industry has two distinctive characteristics that set it apart from other MP industries within its vicinity. One is the use of a wide variety of raw materials; the second is an apparent correlation between raw material and technology used, suggesting a cultural aspect to raw material management. Other sites which reflect similar raw material variability and technological traditions are the BNS and KHS sites in the Omo Kibish Formation (Ethiopia) dated to ~100 ka and ~190 ka respectively. Based on a lithic comparative study conducted, it is suggested that Khormusan site 1017 can be seen as representing behavioral patterns which are indicative of East African Middle Stone Age (MSA) technology, adding support to the hypothesis that the Nile Valley was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of MIS 4. The second article looks at the Nubian technology as a possible indicator for modern human dispersals during the end of MIS 6 through MIS 5. If archaeological assemblages are used to infer population movements and diffusion of technological knowledge, then “technological packages” need to be identified. These packages consist of distinct technological practices and their particular combinations. The Nubian technology has been recognized in several assemblages from the Negev Highlands, which also have a different “technological package” compared to well-known Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the central Negev (the Avdat/Aqev sites). The Negev Highlands sites seem to have closer ties with the Late Nubian Complex sites from the Nile Valley and to a lesser extent to the Nubian assemblages from Arabia. Identifying the permutations of the technological packages within the Negev Highland assemblages is a step in recognizing past human interactions and networks during MIS 5, between the Nile Valley, the Negev and Arabia. The third article presents an in-depth study of MSA lithic assemblages from Ethiopia. This has enabled the identification of regional lithic technological packages as well as the diffusion of technological traits between prehistoric groups. Incorporating the technological relations of the Khormusan industry with these MSA industries, as well as the broad geographical span of the Nubian technology has enabled the mapping of 'interaction spheres'. These spheres are thought to reflect social networks and possible movement trajectories across the landscape, and are formulated based on recognized lithic variability. Following the current study across eastern Africa, the Nile Valley, the southern Levant and Arabia several different interaction spheres are recognized, during the late Pleistocene (end of MIS6 to initial MIS4). These spheres are thought to portray complex sets of interactions that allowed for the diffusion of technological traits, both by range expansions and dispersals as well as the maintenance of social networks. It seems that the Nile Valley displays a large amplitude of variability when compared to neighboring areas, adding support to the hypothesis that this region was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of MIS 4.
African Archaeological Review, 2005
The technology of the end products i.e. blades and points in Late Pleistocene stone artefact assemblages from Klasies River, South Africa, and the Nile Valley, Egypt, are compared. The comparison includes univariate and multivariate analysis of metrical attributes enhanced by graphical biplot displays. The end products in these assemblages are either dominantly points or blades and this is related to the core reduction strategy adopted. The MSA 11 from Klasies River and the Nubian Complex industry from the Nile Valley are point industries made in the Levallois tradition, while the MSA 1 from Klasies River and the Taramsan from the Nile Valley may be non-Levallois or adapted Levallois blade industries. Dating of the assemblages shows the changes between dominant core reduction strategies are sequential and time restricted in both South and North Africa. It is concluded that variability of the same kind occurs in Middle Stone Age and Middle Palaeolithic assemblages south and north of the Sahara in the early Late Pleistocene. Dans cet article, les technologies des produits recherchés, des lames et des pointes, pour certains ensembles lithiques de Klasies River, Afrique du Sud et la Vallée du Nil, Egypte, sont comparées. Cette comparaison implique des analyses univariées et multivariées de variables métriques biplot. Les produits recherchés sont bien des pointes que des lames, selon les stratégies d’exploitation adoptées. Le MSA II de Klasies River et le Complexe nubien de la Vallée du Nil sont des industries à pointes issues de la tradition Levallois. Par contre, le MSA I de Klasies River et le Taramsien de la Vallée du Nil évoquent une technologie de production non-Levallois ou Levallois modifiée. Les éléments de datation disponibles indiquent que les changements dans la prépondérance des stratégies d’exploitation s’enchaînent dans une séquence chronologique bien identifiable, aussibien dans l’Afrique du Sud que l’Afrique du Nord. On arrive à la conclusion qu’une variabilité du même caractère est attestée dans les ensembles du Middle Stone Age et du Paléolithique moyen au sud et au nord du Sahara, pendant le Pléistocène supérieur ancien.
Journal of Archaeological Science
Aterian stone tools represent one of the clearest indications of technological regionalisation in the North African Middle Stone Age. Found in association with Homo sapiens skeletal remains and more recently with symbolic material culture, the Aterian is widely thought to reflect modern human identity and cognition. As a lithic industry, the Aterian has been primarily defined by the presence of stemmed or tanged tools, but there has been little quantitative study of the relationship between tangs and other forms of hafting modifications, such as shouldering and basal thinning. Understanding the diversity of these features and their relationships with one another will clarify the organisation and adaptations of North African populations during Marine Isotope Stage 5 (MIS 5, ∼130–70,000 years ago), a critical timespan for modern human dispersal. This paper presents the results of a stepped analysis of fifteen Aterian and other non-Aterian assemblages from the same spatial and temporal bracket in North Africa. Using Correspondence Analyses together with a suite of other statistics, the results indicate that tanging represents a widely applied strategy of hafting a variety of different tools. On the other hand, basal thinning is specifically correlated with lightweight, highly retouched points. The distribution of these features appears to reflect geographical proximity and shared environments, rather than articulating with traditional named industries. This in turn suggests that a continued focus on tangs to differentiate an ‘Aterian’ from other, contemporary North African MSA industries may be obfuscating regional-scale patterns of technological diversity.
The Pleistocene Stone Artifact Record of Africa: Technologies, Typologies, and Analytic Approaches
Handbook of Pleistocene Archaeology in Africa, 2023
Flaked stone (lithic) artifacts are a ubiquitous cultural material at Pleistocene sites and first appear in the archaeological record 3.3 million years ago (Ma) in East Africa (Harmand et al., 2015). The African stone artifact record thus covers the longest time span of human prehistory compared to other world regions. Lithic artifacts preserve well, and they are often the only cultural materials remaining at a site. Archaeologists have therefore dedicated considerable effort to describing stone artifacts and to developing theory to interpret them in light of the behavioral and biological evolution of hominins. Below we briefly describe the major lithic technologies that appeared in Africa during the Pleistocene. Additionally, this chapter reviews the common analytical approaches that researchers employ when studying lithic assemblages from diverse contexts. We then discuss how archaeologists have used lithic artifacts to interpret other aspects of hominin evolution and the issues that confound these interpretations. Here, stone “artifacts” are preferred as opposed to stone “tools” to refer to all intentionally flaked stones because the term “artifact” does not presume their use as tools per se.
Lithics of the North African Middle Stone Age: assumptions, evidence and future directions
2019
North Africa features some of the earliest manifestations of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) and fossils of our species, Homo sapiens, as well as early examples of complex culture and the long distance transfer of exotic raw materials. As they are elsewhere, lithics (i.e., stone tools) present by far the most abundant source of information on this cultural period. Given the importance of North Africa in human origins, understanding the character and distribution of MSA lithics is therefore crucial, as they shed light on early human behaviour and culture. However, the lithics of the North African MSA are poorly understood, and their technological variability is frequently obfuscated by regionally specific nomenclatures, often repeated without criticism, and diverse methods of analysis that are often incompatible. Characterising dynamic technological innovations as well as apparent technological stasis remains challenging, and many narratives have not been tested quantitatively. This significantly problematizes hypotheses of human evolution and dispersals invoking these data that extend beyond North Africa. This paper therefore presents a description of the lithics of the North African MSA, including their technological characteristics, chronology, spatial distribution and associated research traditions. A range of interpretations concerning early H. sapiens demography in North Africa are then re-evaluated in the light of this review, and the role and power of lithic data to contribute to such debates is critically assessed.
This dissertation describes the technological behaviors represented by the ~500-thousand-year-old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), Northern Cape, South Africa, and situates new evidence from this site into evolutionary context. The findings highlight the significance of the early Middle Pleistocene in Africa for understanding behavioral evolution in later Homo. The stratum 4a assemblage at KP1 represents a mainly flake and blade-based industry that employed multiple strategies to produce blanks that were retouched into a variety of forms, including unifacially retouched points. Diverse core reduction strategies at KP1 suggests that KP1 hominins were flexible to the demands of local raw materials, consistent with increased degrees of ‘behavioral variability’ and adaptability. Several lines of evidence indicate that the KP1 points were used as spear tips. Points from sites ~300 thousand years ago (ka) and younger were often used as weapon tips, and evidence for this behavior can now be pushed back to ~500 ka, with important implications for cognition and social behavior among early Middle Pleistocene hominins. Raw materials in the KP1 assemblage were acquired from multiple local sources. Based on comparisons with a sample from the underlying stratum 4b Acheulean assemblage, the stratum 4a assemblage does not exhibit major changes in the kinds or quality of raw material exploited; thus, the technological changes represented by the stratum 4a assemblage are not explained by changes in raw material. New evidence from KP1 poses problems for current models that link the appearance of Middle Stone Age technologies to speciation and dispersion ~300 ka. Middle Stone Age technologies appear in the African archaeological record by ~500 ka. The new timing for the origins of Middle Stone Age technologies provides a parsimonious explanation for technological similarities between the lithic assemblages of Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens, who share a common ancestor in the early Middle Pleistocene. Limits imposed by the nature of the African archaeological record and chronometric analyses may explain why the antiquity of these technological changes was not previously recognized.
Aspects of tool production, use, and hafting in Palaeolithic assemblages from Northeast Africa
Journal of human evolution, 2011
A detailed microwear study was performed on several assemblages from Northeast Africa to provide an anthropological scenario of late middle and upper Pleistocene populations in the Nile Valley and adjacent zones. Results are presented from the wear analysis of five sites, and an interpretation is provided of the keystones of MSA behaviour and its evolution throughout about 150,000 years. Locally available raw materials were predominantly used. Different tool uses were identified based on wear evidence, and it was demonstrated that stone tools were hafted from at least the early MSA onwards. In particular stone tools for which hafting was a necessity for their use, such as percussion implements and projectiles, were hafted. Both tool functions remain important throughout the Middle Stone Age. For tools with other uses, such as knives, hafting was demonstrated in certain cases. Hafting proved to be integrated into the stone tool production process, indicating a certain degree of anticipation and planning. Ochre was present at most of the sites in different forms, and mainly seems to have served a utilitarian function, and a possible symbolic use. The included sites could be interpreted as specialised sites, and in all but one case were situated in a production context. The evidence indicates the existence of a regional settlement system with different logistic nodes.