Stress and Reactions to Stress in Children (original) (raw)
Related papers
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1998
tion signals, hormones, cytokines, other mediators) that arrive through distinct pathways. Activation of the stress system leads to a cluster of time-limited behavioral and physical changes that are remarkably consistent in their qualitative presentation and collectively called the general adaptation or stress syndrome . These changes are normally adaptive and improve the chances of the individual for survival. Components of the stress syndrome are stimulated in a stressor-specific fashion; however, as the potency of the stressor increases, the specificity of the response decreases to eventually produce the relatively "nonspecific" stress syndrome.
Individual reactivity and physiology of the stress response
Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 2000
The biological response to stress involves the activation of two nmin ncuroendocrine components, the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal axis and the sympathoadrenal medullary systems. Looking at the responses to stressors in a laboratory setting, e.g, cortisol production after exercising on a treadmill, is a valid and controlled way to study how people react to psychological and physical stressors. A common finding in such studies is that individuals respond bimodally to stress. More recently, researchers have been interested in the possible reasons why healthy individuals exhibit differential reactivity to stressors. The literature on the neuroendocrine responses to stress, with a particular focus on investigations of individual reactivity to psychological and physical stressors, is reviewed. © 2000 l~ditions scientifiques et medicales Elsevier SAS
Defense Mechanisms and Physiological Reactivity to Stress
Journal of Personality, 2003
The relation between the use of defense mechanisms and autonomic nervous system reactivity, under conditions of laboratory stress, was studied in 78 men and women. Both diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and skin conductance level (SCL) were monitored during exposure to ten stress tasks; concurrently, the use of three defense mechanisms was assessed by coding Thematic Apperception Test stories. Autonomic reactivity was found to be related to defenses; the nature of that relation differed across the defenses. DBP, typically found to be associated with cognitive work, was higher in those individuals who used more Identification, a defense that requires greater cognitive activity. The use of Projection, on the other hand, was associated with lower DBP. In addition, the use of Identification showed a tendency to be associated with lower SCL.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2008
Exposure to some predominantly emotional (electric shock) and systemic (interleukin-1β) stressors has been found to induce long-term sensitization of the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal (HPA) responsiveness to further superimposed stressors. Since exposure to immobilization on wooden boards (IMO) is a severe stressor and may have interest regarding putative animal models of post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD), we have characterized long-lasting effects of a single exposure to IMO and other stressors on the HPA response to the same (homotypic) and to novel (heterotypic) stressors and the putative mechanisms involved. A single exposure to IMO caused a long-lasting reduction of peripheral and central responses of the HPA axis, likely to be mediated by some brain areas, such as the lateral septum and the medial amygdala. This desensitization is not explained by changes in negative glucocorticoid feedback, and, surprisingly, it is positively related to the intensity of the stressors. In contrast, the HPA response to heterotypic stressors (novel environments) was enhanced, with maximal sensitization on the day after IMO. Sensitization progressively vanished over the course of 1-2 weeks and was not modulated by IMO-induced corticosterone release. Moreover, it could not be explained by changes in the sensitivity of the HPA axis to fast or intermediate/delayed negative feedback, as evaluated 1 week after exposure to IMO, using shock as the heterotypic stressor. Long-lasting stress-induced behavioral changes reminiscent of enhanced anxiety and HPA sensitization are likely to be parallel but partially independent phenomena, the former being apparently not related to the intensity of stressors.
Behavioral and Neurochemical Consequences Associated with Stressorsa
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1986
The view has repeatedly been expressed that aversive events may increase vulnerability to a wide range of psychological disturbances, including clinical depression. While not dismissing the contribution of cognitive alterations in the provocation of affective disorders, it has been maintained that the neurochemical consequences associated with aversive events are responsible for the depressive symptomatology.'.2 Specifically, it was proposed that when an organism is confronted with a stressor, it will adopt any of a number of behavioral styles in order to escape from the insult or to diminish its impact. Concurrently, a series of neurochemical changes may occur, whose function may be one of either blunting the physical or psychological impact of the stressor or enabling the organism to emit appropriate responses to deal effectively with the stressor. Failure of these adaptive mechanisms may render the organism more vulnerable to behavioral depression. In the present report we document both transient and persistent neurochemical sequelae of stressors and relate these to the behavioral consequences associated with psychological and physical insults. ADAPTIVE NEUROCHEMICAL CHANGES IN RESPONSE TO AVERSIVE STIMULI Although stressful events provoke several neurochemical and hormonal variations, the present report will focus on only two of these, specifically norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA). Omission of other transmitters and hormones does not imply that they are of lesser importance. Indeed, as will be seen later, the very great number of behavioral alterations associated with stressors, and their potential modification by various types of pharmacological manipulations, provide prima facie evidence that transmitters other than the catecholamines are also associated with the behavioral effects of uncontrollable aversive events. asupported by Grants A9845 and A1087 from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and Grants MT-6486 and MA-8130 from the Medical Research Council of Canada. 20s 206 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Norepinephrine W Re-exposure 10 Re-exposme to Re-exposure to UncontroUsMe Stress Uffionlrollable Stress Unconlrollable Stress 60 shocks on the first day and 10 shocks on the second day. (From Anisman et al? With permission from Academic Press.
Zoo Animal and Wildlife Immobilization and Anesthesia, 2007
Endocrine and psychological stress responses in a simulated emergency situation
Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2011
Background: Several studies have assessed the effects of training using patient simulation systems on medical skills. However, endocrine and psychological stress responses in a patient simulation situation and the relationship between stress reactivity and medical performance have been studied rarely, so far. Methods: Medical students (18 males and 16 females) who had completed at least two months anaesthesiology training participated in the study. In a counterbalanced cross-over design they were subjected to three conditions: rest, laboratory stress (LS; public speaking), and simulated emergency situation (SIM; myocardial ischemia and ventricular fibrillation). Salivary cortisol and psychological responses (visual analogue scales, VAS) were assessed every 15 min from 15 min prior to until 60 min after intervention. Differences between stress and rest conditions were analysed. Medical performance was assessed according to the European Resuscitation Council's Guidelines for Resuscitation. Results: As compared to rest, cortisol increased significantly in both stress conditions with different time courses in LS and SIM. Psychological responses in SIM exceeded those in LS.
Behavioral and Neurochemical Consequences Associated with Stressors
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1986
The view has repeatedly been expressed that aversive events may increase vulnerability to a wide range of psychological disturbances, including clinical depression. While not dismissing the contribution of cognitive alterations in the provocation of affective disorders, it has been maintained that the neurochemical consequences associated with aversive events are responsible for the depressive symptomatology.'.2 Specifically, it was proposed that when an organism is confronted with a stressor, it will adopt any of a number of behavioral styles in order to escape from the insult or to diminish its impact. Concurrently, a series of neurochemical changes may occur, whose function may be one of either blunting the physical or psychological impact of the stressor or enabling the organism to emit appropriate responses to deal effectively with the stressor. Failure of these adaptive mechanisms may render the organism more vulnerable to behavioral depression. In the present report we document both transient and persistent neurochemical sequelae of stressors and relate these to the behavioral consequences associated with psychological and physical insults. ADAPTIVE NEUROCHEMICAL CHANGES IN RESPONSE TO AVERSIVE STIMULI Although stressful events provoke several neurochemical and hormonal variations, the present report will focus on only two of these, specifically norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA). Omission of other transmitters and hormones does not imply that they are of lesser importance. Indeed, as will be seen later, the very great number of behavioral alterations associated with stressors, and their potential modification by various types of pharmacological manipulations, provide prima facie evidence that transmitters other than the catecholamines are also associated with the behavioral effects of uncontrollable aversive events. asupported by Grants A9845 and A1087 from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and Grants MT-6486 and MA-8130 from the Medical Research Council of Canada. 20s 206 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Norepinephrine W Re-exposure 10 Re-exposme to Re-exposure to UncontroUsMe Stress Uffionlrollable Stress Unconlrollable Stress 60 shocks on the first day and 10 shocks on the second day. (From Anisman et al? With permission from Academic Press.
Neurophysiology of stress: From historical to modern approach
Medicinska istraživanja, 2022
Stress is present in our everyday lives and it is considered to be the driving force of evolution. Anxiety, chronic worries and panic attacks are the most common consequences of long-term and exhausting stress. The most significant fundamental contribution that is crucial for the development of the modern concept of stress was made by Claude Bernard who proposed the theory that the body was constantly maintaining a stable and well-balanced internal environment or "milieu interieur". Maintaining the internal environment constant was defined as homeostasis by Cannon who proposed two maintenance mechanisms-through negative feedback from the autonomic nervous system and through sensory organs. Hans Selye proposed stress as non-specific strain on the body, caused by an altered body function which is followed by the release of stress hormones. He named this process the general adaptation syndrome which had three stages: alarm reaction, initial phase exhibiting "fight or flight" response; resistance, when body is getting used to being stressed, and exhaustion, when resistance to stress is gradually decreased and collapses. Hans Selye was the first to coin the term "heterostasis" representing the procedure by which a new stable state was achieved by the activation of physiological adaptive mechanisms. Lazarus highlighted emotions as an important factor in behavior in response to stress and provided a description of various reactions to stressors. He emphasized the process of cognitive assessment as a mediator in dealing with stressors-how a person imagines or evaluates an event in order to understand stress reactions in people. Eustress, considered to be positive stress leads to toned emotions, motivation and focused energy, while distress, negative stress, occurs after prolonged stress that exceeds our ability to deal with it. Distress causes anxiety or withdrawal (depression and anxiety), and is accompanied by unpleasant feelings and reduced work ability leading to mental and physical illnesses.