Trees as key to pastoralist risk management in semi-arid landscapes in Shinyanga, Tanzania and Turkana, Kenya (original) (raw)

In both Shinyanga, Tanzania and Turkana, Kenya, woodlands have been degraded over time, due to agricultural expansion, clearing to eradicate tsetse fly, famine camps, and past policy failures. This study analyzes the reasons for degradation, and examines what the key factors are which led to successful restoration of woodlands in both Shinyanga and Turkana. The study covers approximately fifteen years of restoration work, and is based on past and on going work, combined with action research. Basing the restoration on clearly identified local needs for tree products, and reviving and recognizing local institutional arrangements for natural resource management has been key to success. Turkana pastoralists in northern Kenya, and Sukuma agro pastoralists in Shinyanga, Tanzania, show how important trees are as components of natural resource and risk management in dry, risk-prone environments. The Turkana demonstrated that they can restore and manage forests to provide vital dry season and drought time food and fodder as a key component of land and risk management. Using traditional institutions and management systems, the people restored over 30,000 Ha. of Acacia woodland. In Shinyanga, the Sukuma revitalized the institution of Ngitili, or enclosure, and broadened its usage to include a wide range of woodland goods and services. Over 15 years, approximately 250,000 Ha were restored. External support was small and sensitively applied to foster local ownership. One crucial element of this, is the safety net functions that the restored forests fulfill during dry seasons, and drought times. As a result, risk is mitigated, and livelihoods can be better secured and improved. BACKGROUND-A PAST HISTORY OF DEGRADATION AND LACK OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF IMPORTANCE OF LOCAL NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Both the Sukuma and Turkana have customary mechanisms for conserving important areas of woodland as a source of multiple products for livestock and people, especially during dry and drought times. Traditional knowledge about natural resource management is an important basis for improving land use (Barrow et al. 1992; Dery et al. 1999). Farmers, through years of traditional experimentation, have developed strategies to cope with environmental and production problems (Otsyina et al. 1993). "Ngitili", or enclosure, in Shinyanga involves the conservation of range lands for use in the dry seasons. Ngitili developed in response to acute fodder shortages due to droughts, diminishing grazing land due to increased cropping, rapidly declining land productivity, and shortages of herding labour (Kilahama 1994; Maro 1997; Otsyina et al. 1993). While the Turkana have well-developed means of coping with dry and drought times through the setting aside of reserved grazing areas (Amaire), and family owned areas of important trees (Ekwar (Barrow 1990). These traditional mechanisms are important for the management of natural resources, but have been, until recently, ignored as tools for development and change. As a result the degradation that has taken place has been mainly due to external changes and interventions. Shinyanga region was extensively forested (Malcolm 1953), varying from Miombo woodland to Acacia bushland in the drier areas. Forest and woodland degradation in Shinyanga region has been caused by the clearing of forests to eradicate tsetse flies, over-grazing, uncontrolled bush fires, clearing of land for agricultural expansion and increased wood demand, in particular for fuel (Barrow et al. 1988): Eradicating Tsetse Fly: Between 1925 and about 1947 major efforts were made to clear forests in unreserved land to eradicate tsetse flies. However, from the early 1980s, complete clearing of forests was stopped. Currently, selective felling of some trees and shrubs is practised (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock 1997). Cash Crop Expansion: In the early 1900's, agricultural production in Shinyanga region was confined to subsistence crops like sorghum and millet. By the early 1940s, large scale cultivation of cotton and tobacco had been introduced, accompanied by extensive clearing of forests, which has been the major source of deforestation in