Yhwh and His Messiah: Pauline Exegesis and the Divine Christ (original) (raw)

YHWH AND HIS MESSIAH: PAULINE EXEGESIS AND THE DIVINE CHRIST

David B. Capes
Houston, Texas

In Romans 9-11 Paul laments the status of unbelieving Jews and its resultant disjuncture with believing Jews and Gentiles now included in the people of God. He attempts to justify this astonishing, new situation by frequent appeals to God’s plan revealed in scripture. 1{ }^{1}

Pivotal to his discussion is Rom 9:30-10:13 which describes why Israel had not yet attained God’s righteousness revealed in Christ. 2{ }^{2} Paul’s discourse tracks carefully along the path of scriptural exegesis in allusions and comments on the Law (Lev 18:5; Deut 9:4; 30:12-14) and the Prophets (Isa 8:14; 28:16; Joel 3:5). Since it is generally acknowledged that this part of Paul’s argument (9:30-10:21) is christocentric 3{ }^{3}, this article will explore how the apostle “reads” these texts and expands their meaning through christological reflection. 4{ }^{4} Specifically, I will investigate Paul’s exegetical methods and conclusions in Rom 9:30-10:13 and draw some implications for his understanding of Jesus.

I

Paul’s first scriptural echo in the focal passage is found in Rom 9:33. It is precipitated by his previous remarks on the state of unbelieving Jews to God’s saving righteousness. The apostle begins this new phase of his argument in 9:30 and puts forth what is for him a disturbing observation, namely, that Gentiles, who have not been pursuing righteousness, 5{ }^{5} are nevertheless obtaining it through faith; on the other hand, Israel, who has pursued the “law of righteousness,” is apparently missing it altogether. The reason, he suggests, is because Israel fails to pursue righteousness through faith; instead she pursues it through works (9:32). 6{ }^{6} Many Jews, he claims, are stumbling over the “stone of stumbling.”

The “stone” remark in 9:32 is no doubt prompted by Paul’s scriptural memory, for in 9:33 he merges two passages from Isaiah (8:14 and 28:16) which contain the key word “stone.” He introduces the scripture with a standard introductory formula, kathōs gegraptai (“just as it is written”), indicating this desire to invoke scriptural authority. He writes:
idou tithēmi en Siōn lithon proskommatos kai petran skandalou, kai ho pisteuōn ep’ autō ou kataischunthēsetai.
“Behold, I lay in Zion a stone of stumbling and a rock of offense, and the one who believes on it (or him) will not be ashamed.”

Utilizing an exegetical method known to Hillel and other first century biblical exegetes as gezera shawa, 7{ }^{7} Paul blends the scriptural images around the key word “stone.” For him these texts from the Hebrew Bible and the narrative context illuminate his contemporary situation.

Isaiah 8 portrays God’s judgment upon Israel at the time of the Assyrian crisis. According to the prophet, many are trusting political alliances rather than God to stay the hand of their foes. Unknown to them, however, is God’s plan to use Assyria as his instrument to punish his recalcitrant people ( 8:5−108: 5-10 ). In what seems to be a personal word to the prophet, God warns Isaiah not to fear foreign governments; instead he should fear YHWH. His oracle claims that YHWH will be a “stone of stumbling” and a “rock of falling” to both houses of Israel. For those in Jerusalem who rely on political solutions, he remarks, YHWH will be a trap and a snare. Isaiah decides to wait upon YHWH and to put his trust in him (8:17).

A similar account is related in Isaiah 28 which depicts God’s judgment upon arrogant rulers in Jerusalem. They boast of their accomplishments and rejoice that they have successfully negotiated a covenant with death and the grave (28:14-15). 8{ }^{8} God promises to respond to their prideful claims, however, with judgment. He lays a stone in Zion which establishes justice and righteousness, dissolving their covenants with death and the grave (28:16-20). Although the referent for “stone” is not as clear in this passage, it may well refer to God since Isaiah prophesies a day in which YHWH rises up like

Mt. Perazim (28:21) to judge the unrighteous and to be a glorious crown to the righteous remnant (28:5-6).

Paul recycles these scriptural materials because he finds their story to parallel the unfortunate situation at hand. Just as Isaiah prophesies judgment upon Israel in his day, so now Paul understands that, at least temporarily, God’s hand moves against those in Israel who reject Jesus as Lord and Messiah (Rom 9:6-29; 11:7-32). Again Isaiah’s oracles condemn the people - especially the rulers - for depending on their own devices and establishing political alliances rather than trusting God’s deliverance. In the same way, Paul suggests that the current failure of his countrymen is due to their dependence upon “works of law,” which for them establishes their own righteousness (10:3). Finally, even though both Isaiah texts threaten judgment, they also promise salvation. Paul’s scriptural recollection likewise does not end with stumbling; it ends with the hope of salvation to the one who trusts “in him” (ep’ autō; 9:33d). As the prophet concludes his oracle with the personal decision to trust “in him” (8:17 LXX; ep’ autō), so also Paul invokes this timely decision and therefore casts his lot and the lot of all believers with the faithful Isaiah.

The question remains however: who or perhaps what is the “stone”? Paul Meyer interprets Rom 9:33 theocentrically. He says that for Paul the “stone” is the Torah and faith is directed toward God. 9{ }^{9} C. K. Barrett also suggests that the “stone” referent is Torah. Nevertheless, he does admit that such a reading is problematic given the christocentric use of Isa 28:16 later in Rom 10:11. Barrett finds this no “insuperable difficulty,” however, since Paul declares Christ to be the “end of the law” (10:4). 10{ }^{10}

While there is some merit to the conclusion of Meyer and Barrett that “stone” for Paul meant Torah, the most likely referent is Christ. Several reasons may be given. First, early Christians frequently make christological use of “stone” texts. Many have documented this feature of early Christology so no need exists to explore that further here. 11{ }^{11} If Paul uses “stone” in Rom 9:33 to refer to Law, he works against the grain of other early Christian traditions. Second, in Rom 10:11 Paul again quotes Isa 28:1628: 16 in a context where confession and faith is christologically oriented. Since the apostle reads the passage

christologically in Rom 10:11, he likely does the same a few verses earlier. Third, in a parallel passage (1 Cor 1:23) Paul relates that his preaching of the crucified Messiah is a “stumbling block” (skandalon) to unbelieving Jews. He uses the same word in his merged quotation (9:33) with the phrase “rock of stumbling” (petran skandalou). Both passages have to do with gospel proclamation as an offense to unbelieving Jews. Because this phrase varies from the LXX, which has instead petras ptömati, it may well be that Paul alters the Greek text before him in conformity with his notion that for Jewish ears the preaching of a crucified Messiah is a skandalon. That these expressions are identical is not coincidental. This idea is given more weight if, fourth, Jewish teachers are already using “stone” passages with messianic import as Joachim Jeremias argues. 12{ }^{12} Paul, therefore, may be heightening the scandal for inhospitable Jews by adapting these messianic “stone” quotations to Jesus as Messiah. Finally, the christological understanding of “stone” in Rom 9:33 fits the overall context of Paul’s argument. 13{ }^{13} For him Israel is not attaining right standing before God because she fails to put faith in Jesus as Messiah and Lord. According to Paul, whoever confesses Jesus as Lord and believes God raised him will be saved (10:9). This “whoever” includes Jews and Gentiles alike (10:12). The problem for Israel, he asserts, is not that they have not heard the gospel message ( 10:14−1710: 14-17 ); on the contrary, they have heard but they are not being obedient to that message (10:18-21). Unbelieving Jews are not stumbling over Torah but over Jesus as Messiah.

It should not be overlooked that Isaiah 8 clearly - and Isaiah 28 somewhat less clearly - names YHWH as the “stone of stumbling.” If Paul is cognizant of this connection, as he seems to be of other contextual factors in these texts, his application of this “stone” passage to Jesus carries significant christological implications. At the level of exegesis he brings Christ into intimate relation to YHWH and posits Christ in an eschatological role which scripture reserves for God. 14{ }^{14}

II

In Romans 10 Paul expands his discourse regarding the relationship of Jews and Gentiles to his message. He laments that although

his countrymen have a zeal for God, it is misdirected. Ironically, while trying to establish and maintain their own righteousness, they are missing God’s completely. They seek to gain saving righteousness by works of the Law. What they fail to realize from Israel’s past, Paul suggests, is that the crux of the Law is now and has always been righteousness through faith 16{ }^{16} not righteousness through performance. God makes this evident in Christ. For Paul saving righteousness is the righteousness of God constituted ultimately in God’s act in Christ (Rom 3:21-26). 16{ }^{16} To Paul’s dismay some fail to acknowledge that Christ is the tėlos of the Law (10:1-4) and that righteousness comes to all by faith. 17{ }^{17}

Romans 10:5-13 provides scriptural warrant for Paul’s contention that Christ is the tèlos of the Law and that God’s righteousness extends to all who believe in him. It contains allusions to several texts from the Law and the Prophets which we will now examine.

To bolster his argument, Paul mines the words of Moses (Lev 18:5) for a negative assessment of the outcome of a performance-based righteousness derived from the Law. He quotes the same verse with similar purpose in Gal 3:12. 18He{ }^{18} \mathrm{He} writes (10:5): ho poiêsas auta anthrôpos zêsetai en autois (“the person who does them [commandments] will live by them”). He contrasts Moses, who speaks for the old order, with the hypothetical “Righteousness from faith,” who speaks for the new. 19{ }^{19} The “Righteousness from faith” echoes the message of Deuteronomy ( 9:4;30:12−149: 4 ; 30: 12-14 ).

Some deny that Paul quotes scripture in Rom 10:6-8; they opt instead to read these sayings as proverbial. 20{ }^{20} Jack Suggs however argues convincingly that Paul intended 10:6-8 to be a scriptural citation due to (1) the frequency of Old Testament quotations in Romans 9-11; (2) the verbal affinity of Rom 10:6b to Deut 9:4 and Rom 10:8 to Deut 30:14; and (3) tout’ estin formula, which is used elsewhere to express commentary on an explicit scriptural citation (Rom 9:7-8; Heb 7:5; 1 Pet 3:20; cf. Acts 2:16). 21{ }^{21}

The following presents the scripture texts, as quoted by Paul, and his commentary:

Text (Deut 9:4): mê eipês en tê kardia sou
Text (Deut 30:12): tis anabêsetaí eis ton ouranon

Commentary: tout’ estin to hrēma tēs pisteōs ho kerussomen

Several factors should be noticed. First, Paul’s quotations of Deut 9:4 and 30:14 are virtually identical to the LXX. At the same time, however, his quotations of Deut 30:12 and 30:13 vary significantly. As will be shown below, the variations may be due to the development of Deut 30:11-14 in the Wisdom tradition and/or Paul’s alteration to the text to bring it into conformity with the story of Jesus. Second, each commentary Paul offers on these texts begins with the phrase tout’ estin (“that/this is”; cf. Rom 9:7-8). The use of this phrase suggests that Paul interprets these texts in a manner similar to pesher exegesis at Qumran (1QpHab 5.6-8; 6.2-8; 7.3-5; 10.2-4; 12.2-10). Hays defines pesher as "cryptically encoded allegory of the community’s own history, apocalyptically interpreted. 122{ }^{122} Employing pesher, exegetes like Paul and the Qumran sectarians read and interpret scripture as being fulfilled in their time and in their community. Third, Paul interprets these texts christologically. Each comment explains the scripture in terms of Christ. For Paul Christ is not only the telos of the Law, but he is the climax of the covenant story 23{ }^{23} and the content of his preached word of faith.

To understand Paul’s exegesis, it is necessary to investigate the story of Deuteronomy 9 and 30 and its subsequent development in Jewish exegetical history.

The phrase “do not say in your heart” (Rom 10:6) recalls Deut 9:4 (cf. Deut 8:17). As the Israelites prepare to enter the promised land, God warns them not to take credit for the coming victory. YHWH will fight the battle and drive out the wicked before his people. It will be his victory totally and completely. Israel should not therefore

presume on her own righteousness. Deuteronomy 9:6 makes this clear: “And you shall know that it is not on account of your righteousness that YHWH your God is giving you this land to possess, for you are a stiff-necked people.” As the story unfolds, Israel’s righteousness does not procure the victory or the land; it is God’s act from beginning to end.

Paul’s use of Deut 9:4 recalls not only the text but the context as well. Many of Paul’s contemporaries are missing God’s promises by their reliance on a performance-based righteousness to fulfill the Law. Paul revives the story of Deuteronomy to imply that self-righteousness has never brought anyone to the promise; only God’s act establishes righteousness. Thus Paul’s intertextual echo of Deut 9:4 resounds against those who seek to establish their own righteousness and lays the foundation for recognizing God’s act in Christ as establishing divine righteousness.

In Deuteronomy 30 Moses prophesies restoration for the banished people of YHWH scattered among the nations. He conveys God’s promise to gather them to the land to possess it, to cause them to prosper, to punish their enemies, and to circumcise their hearts with the result that they would love YHWH and observe his commandments. Specifically, commandments are the focus of Deut 30:11-14. They are not far off. They are not up in heaven that one would have to go up, retrieve them, bring them back, and proclaim them (30:12). Neither are they beyond the sea that one would have to cross the sea, retrieve them, bring them back, and proclaim them (30:13). On the contrary, God has already brought the commandments near, “in your heart and in your mouth” (30:14). Human effort, the story suggests, lacks relevancy since God has already given the commandments. From Deuteronomy 30 Paul remembers that the covenant depends solely upon God’s act not human effort.

In tradition history Deuteronomy 30 proves to be an important text, Philo, for example, recalls this scripture and refers it to a search for “the good” (tagathon). “The good” is not far off, he writes, but it is near. There is no need to fly up to heaven or traverse the sea, for it resides near in the mouth (stomati), heart (kardia), and hands (chersi). For him, these three aspects of the human constitution represent

speech, thought, and action respectively. When these live in harmony, there is happiness (Som 2.180; Post 84-85; Praem 80; Mut 236-7). Philo also appropriates Deut 30:11-14 as applicable to “virtue” (aretē; Prob 68) and a life transformed by repentance (Virt 183).

Other exegetes read Deut 30:11-14 and interpret it as referring to Wisdom. Perhaps the most compelling example is Bar 3:29-30:
tis anebē eis ton ouranon kai elaben autēn
kai katebibasen autēn ek tōn nephelōn
tis diebē peran tēs thalassēs kai euren autēn
kai oisei autēn chrusiou eklekton;
“Who has gone up into heaven and taken her (Wisdom) and brought her down from the clouds?
Who has gone across the sea and found her and will buy her with precious gold?”

This passage echoes Deut 30:11-14, a passage referring originally to the commandments, and relates it to divine Wisdom. It underscores the inaccessibility of Wisdom through human effort (cf. Sir 7:23-24; Job 28:12-22) just as Deut 30:11-14 emphasizes the inaccessibility of the commandments without God’s act to bring them near. Contextually Bar 3:9-4.4 praises Wisdom and identifies it with Torah (cf. Wis 6:4-9; 9:9; Sir 24:23). Note Bar 4:1 (cf. Proverbs 1-9; Wis 7:27):
autē hē biblos tōn prostaglandan tou theou
kai ho nomos ho huparchōn eis ton aiōna.
“She (Wisdom) is the book of the commandments of God and the Law that abides forever.”

In other Wisdom texts “heaven” and the “abyss” signify the inaccessibility of Wisdom. Sirach 24:5 reads:
guron ouranou ekuklōsa monē
kai en bathei abusson periepatēsa.
“I (Wisdom) encircled the vault of heaven alone and I walked in the depths of the abyss.”

Likewise, in Job 11:5-9 Zophar desires for God to speak and reveal his Wisdom. He declares that the Wisdom, depths, and limits of God are as “high as the heavens” and “deeper than Sheol”; they are “longer than the earth” and “broader than the sea.” Additionally, Job 28 describes the search by man for Wisdom in the depths of the sea (28:14) and in death (28:22). Though one may search for Wisdom, one does not find it in the land of the living (28:13). Only God’s act establishes it (28:23-28). Again, Bar 3:31-32 espouses that man cannot attain Wisdom; yet God has revealed it to Jacob and Israel (Bar 3:36-37; cf. Sir 24:8-12).
So the sapiential tradition abounds in symbols signifying the inaccessibility of Wisdom via human effort and the gift and nearness of Wisdom via God’s act. God brings Wisdom near to Israel in the Torah. 24{ }^{24}

In Rom 10:6-7 Paul appropriates Deut 30:11-14 - both text and storied context - and construes the phrases in vertical (heaven/abyss) rather than horizontal (heaven/across the sea) symbols. 25{ }^{25} His construal may reflect insights from the Wisdom tradition which already signified the inaccessibility of Wisdom with this scripture. Moreover, his echoes extend the meaning of the text christologically as demonstrated by his commentary. When the Righteousness from faith speaks (Deut 30:12), “Who will ascend into heaven?” Paul explains, “that is to bring Christ down” (Rom 10:6). Again as the Righteousness from faith declares, “Who will descend into the abyss?” Paul implies, “that is to bring Christ up from the dead” (Rom 10:7). The apostle’s comments expand these quotations beyond their original and developed referents of Torah and Wisdom to include Christ as well. 26He{ }^{26} \mathrm{He} reads these texts to suggest that what humankind needs ultimately to establish righteousness is the Messiah, whom God has brought near. This righteousness is not attained through human effort; but it has been brought near by God’s gracious act.

At this juncture the story of Jesus intersects with Paul’s scriptural memory. In what may be some of the first stirrings of incarnational thinking, Paul reads Deut 30:12 and extends its meaning to reflect the descent of the Messiah from heaven. Then, to complete the movement, he interprets Deut 30:1330: 13 as portraying the resurrection of the

Messiah from the dead. Thus, both the incarnation and the resurrection of Messiah Jesus are celebrated in Paul’s intertextual play. 27He{ }^{27} \mathrm{He} thereby extends the role of the Messiah in surprising new ways, ways which had not been expected. Who would have thought that the Messiah was a heavenly being? Who may have pondered that the Messiah would be dishonored by crucifixion and vindicated by resurrection? Such evocations are possible only through Paul’s religious experiences and his vivid creativity. 28{ }^{28}

James D. G. Dunn, defending his thesis that incarnational Christology emerges late in the first century, interprets Rom 10:6 as bringing down the ascended not the pre-existent, heavenly Christ. The point of Paul’s argument, he claims, is that Christ is distant and unavailable to humankind; at the same time, however, saving righteousness is near in preaching. 29{ }^{29} While Dunn has gained many supporters, I submit that his conclusion is unwarranted and that Rom 10:6-7 should be interpreted as incarnation/resurrection (descent/ascent) for the following reasons.

First, Paul’s christological interpretation of Deuteronomy 30 underscores the nearness of Christ. The analogy between Christ and the commandments is obvious. Just as God brings the commandments near for Israel, so at the proper time (Gal 4:4) he brings the Messiah down and makes him available to all of faith. No self-respecting teacher in Israel would claim the commandments were distant; neither would Paul claim that of Christ. Perhaps it is because his religious experiences teach him otherwise. While persecuting the church, he receives a “revelation” of Jesus apart from human involvement (Gal 1:11-12). He also has other visions and revelations of the Lord which defy his full cooperation and understanding (2 Cor 12:1-10). 30He{ }^{30} \mathrm{He} speaks of his spiritual transformation as an experience of the glory of God in the face of Jesus (2 Cor 3:16-4:6). Based upon his experiences with the risen Christ, it is unlikely that he would have seen him as distant and unavailable. 31{ }^{31} Second, while Paul’s commentary contains no explicit reference to Christ as Wisdom, Wisdom Christology nevertheless underwrites his entire discussion. Paul’s statement that Christ is the telos of the Law demonstrates this. Since Jewish exegetical tradition relates Torah and Wisdom and portrays them as eternal agents

in God’s plan, the connection between Torah and Christ in 10:4-7 implies divine Wisdom as well. 32{ }^{32} Paul’s christological use of Deut 30:11-14, a text already explained in reference to Wisdom, also confirms this. By identifying Christ as Torah-Wisdom which comes from heaven, Paul appears to be attributing to him pre-existence. Preexistence, of course, is a prerequisite for incarnational thinking. Related to this is the observation that Paul does speak of Christ as God’s Wisdom elsewhere ( 1 Cor 1:24,301: 24,30 ); so it is clearly part of christological understanding. Third, by interpreting 10:6 as incarnation, the order of the clauses (a) bringing Christ down and (b) bringing Christ up corresponds to both the narrative order of Deuteronomy and the chronological order of Jesus’ life, namely, (a) incarnation and (b) resurrection. Although space does not allow development of this point, I think it is possible to show that Paul’s theology has a coherent, narrative shape. At the heart of the narrative are two intersecting stories: (a) the story of Israel and (b) the story of Jesus. Paul may well be more familiar with Israel’s story, but he nevertheless demonstrates knowledge of “the outline of the story of Jesus,” a story which fulfills, subverts, and transforms Israel’s story. 33{ }^{33} Fourth, other passages in Paul offer similar motifs and clarify his use of these texts. In 2 Cor 8:9, for example, Paul construes the descent motif metaphorically as wealth: “though he [Jesus] was rich yet for your sake he became poor.” The description of Jesus as “rich” before he became “poor” parallels the movement of bringing down (to earth) Christ who was in heaven. The Philippian hymn (2:6-11) may also be interpreted in a descent/ascent (incarnation/resurrection) framework. 34{ }^{34} In addition, Paul contrasts Adam as the man “from earth” with the Second Adam as the “man from heaven” (1 Cor 15:47). 35{ }^{35}

To read 10:6 as incarnation as proposed here (1) satisfies the logic of the argument, namely, God’s act brings Christ near in the incarnation; (2) gives full weight to Paul’s Torah-Wisdom-Christ Christology; (3) fits the chronological framework (a) incarnation (b) resurrection; and (4) parallels the descent/ascent motif found elsewhere in Paul and the rest of the New Testament. 36{ }^{36} Thus, as Paul explicates Deut 30:11-13 and celebrates God’s act which establishes righteousness, he reminds his readers of the story of Jesus to acknowledge the

availability of the incarnate and resurrected Christ.
Paul draws together these thoughts with a final quotation from Deut 30:14 (Rom 10:8). He prefaces it with the phrase alla ti legei (“but what does it [scripture] say?”), used as an introductory formula. While following the Hebrew word order, he quotes the LXX nearly verbatim. He writes: eggus sou to hrēma estin en tō stomati sou kai en tē kardia sou (“the word is near you in your mouth and in your heart”). Utilizing a pesher method once again, Paul interprets this text as referring to “the word of faith which we are preaching.” Yet again his comment correlates closely with the original context of Deut 30:12-14 which also contains an element of proclamation: “who shall go up for us to heaven and get it [the commandment] for us and cause us to hear it that we may do it?” (italics added, Deut 30:12). As has been noted previously, his interpretation is often contextually informed.

III

In Rom 10:9-13 Paul elaborates on the content of “the word of faith” in terms of Jesus’ Lordship and resurrection, two potent Pauline emphases. Moreoever, he comments further on the Deut 30:14 citation since he adopts the phrases “in your mouth” and “in your heart” in the same order they appear in scripture. 37{ }^{37} He writes: “if you confess with your mouth (en tō stomati sou) ‘Jesus is Lord’ and believe in your heart (en tē kardia sou) that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved” (10:9).

As many have already shown, the confession “Jesus is Lord” (kurion lēsoun) is well-fixed within early Christianity. 38{ }^{38} Paul uses it here and elsewhere (1 Cor 12:3; 2 Cor 4:5; Phil 2:11; Col 2:6; 3:24) linking it carefully to his preaching and the appropriate response of faith. In each case the expression is something “said” or “confessed.” It emerges most likely “from the earliest stratum of Christian conviction.” 39{ }^{39}

Parallel to the confession of Jesus’ Lordship is faith in the resurrection (10:9). The resurrection of Jesus is central to proclamation and faith. Paul thereby continues his theme on the superiority of faithrighteousness. He reverses the order of the verbs in 10:10 to form a chiastic pattern (homologēsēs . . . pisteusēs . . . pisteuetai . . . homologeitai). Faith, he writes, leads to righteousness; confession

(of faith) leads to salvation. Although the two statements are elaborative parallelisms, the key-word here is “faith.” This is confirmed by Paul’s citation of Isa 28:16 in the next verse which also contains the word “faith” (10:11). 40{ }^{40}

Once again Paul recycles scriptural materials to support the maxim that faith brings righteousness. He introduces the quotation with the formula legei gar hē graphē (“for the scripture says”), returning to the same passage he quoted in 9:33 (Isa 28:16). This time, however, he adds pas (“everyone”) as his own interpretive gloss to emphasize the universality of the gospel. 41{ }^{41} He writes: pas ho pisteuōn ep’ autō ou kataischunthēsetai (“everyone who believes on him will not be put to shame”). Although he follows the LXX, Paul alters the verb tense to accommodate his eschatological outlook and again construes faith as christologically oriented. 42{ }^{42} Interpreted this way, Paul indicates that those who “faith” Christ will not suffer shame at the eschaton; yet those who depend on works-righteousness will.

In 10:12 Paul expounds the universality implicit in pas (10:11). He states: “for there is no distinction between Jew and Greek, for the same Lord is Lord over all, granting riches to all those who call upon him” (cf. Rom 1:16-17; 3:22, 29; Gal 3:28). Throughout his life Paul has been taught that distinctions exist between Jew and non-Jew, that God privileges Israel over the other nations. Now, due to God’s act in Christ, Paul reads the world differently. In the new situation wrought by God there is no distinction. The same Lord is Lord of all.

At this point Paul retrieves the kurios predicate referred to earlier in the christological confession (10:9). The phrase, ho gar autos kurios pantōn (“for the same Lord is Lord over all”), no doubt refers to Jesus 43{ }^{43} whom he describes as bestowing riches upon “all who call upon him” (cf. Rom 2:4; 9:23; Phil 4:19; also Eph 2:4, 7; 3:8).

The phrase pantas tous epikaloumenous auton is important since it establishes the verbal link between 10:12 and 13. Epikaleō is well entrenched in Greek thought for invoking a god in prayer. 44{ }^{44} It occurs in the LXX with similar meaning as petitioners call upon YHWH (Gen 13:4; 21:33; 26:26; Ps 78:6; 79:18; 104:1; 118:4; Isa 64:6; Jer 10:25; Zeph 3:9; Zech 13:9; and Joel 2:32). Its use in the NT is

limited to calling upon Jesus (e.g., Rom 10:12; 1 Cor 1:2; Acts 2:21; 9:14,21;22:16;29: 14,21 ; 22: 16 ; 2 Tim 2:22). Although it can be understood as signifying worship, adoration, and obedience, it primarily connotes prayer. If so, it suggests that Paul promotes prayers to the Lord Jesus and expects divine riches in return. 45{ }^{45}

The phrase “all those who call upon him” (10:12) apparently ignites Paul’s scriptural memory because in 10:13 he quotes Joel 2:32 (LXX, 3:5), a text with similar wording. He writes: pas gar hos an epikalesētai to onoma kuriou sōthēsetai (“for ‘everyone who calls upon the name of the Lord will be saved’”). “Calling upon the name of the Lord” (10:13) provides scriptural warrant and further elaboration of the universality implicit in 10:12. The quotation summarizes Paul’s discourse in 10:9-12, for it contains elements of universality (pas), kurios-Christology, soteriology (sothēsetai), and invocation (epikalesetai). Apparently, he understands it to teach the inclusion of believing Gentiles along with believing Jews. Therefore, he says without hesitation, upon the basis of scripture, that all, both Jew and Gentile, who call upon the name of the Lord Jesus will be saved.

Another spark to Paul’s scriptural memory and quotation of Joel 2:32 may have been struck by the phrase “will not be put to shame” (10:11 quoting Isa 28:16: on kataischunthēsetai). A similar negation of eschatological shame for the righteous occurs in the context of Paul’s scriptural echo in Rom 10:13 (Joel 2:32). After the judgment which comes at the hand of the northern army (Joel 2:20), the prophet foresees a day when God acts to drive out Israel’s enemies and bring peace and prosperity to the elect. In that day, Joel writes, God’s people will realize that YHWH dealt marvelously with them and they will never again be put to shame (ou mé kataischunthē; 2:26). In the next verse Joel repeats: God’s people will know that YHWH is in Israel and they will never again be put to shame (ou mé kataischunthōsin; 2:27). Isaiah (28:16) utilizes the same phrase to project his voice for eschatological vindication from Israel’s enemies. In that day, the prophet remarks, those who believe will not be put to shame (ou mé kataischunthē).

These textual echoes resound in Paul’s scriptural memory, so much so that the apostle retrieves their message and gathers them to amplify his own prophetic voice. Paul stands in agreement with the canonical

preachers who look down the corridors of history past Israel’s shame to a day of salvation for God’s people. But there is one significant difference evident in Paul’s quotation. Although his rendering of Joel 2:32 is faithful to both Greek and Hebrew texts, 46{ }^{46} he does omit two words, kai estai (“and it will be”). While the prophet and his translator await that day, Paul believes that it has already dawned in the new age inaugurated by Jesus. For him God’s act in Christ has already established the new community, united by faith in the resurrected Jesus and destined for salvation at the consummation of the age.

The confluence of these notions, namely, calling upon the Lord and the reversal of shame in the eschaton, emerges in Paul’s quotation of Joel 2:32: “for ‘everyone who calls upon the name of the Lord will be saved.’” But who is the “Lord”? Is Paul referring to Jesus as the kurios, as is his custom, or God the Father? 47{ }^{47} To address this issue, it is instructive to analyze the various texts.

Rom 10:13: pas gar hos an epikalesētai to onoma kuriou sōthēsetai 48{ }^{48}

The divine name, YHWH, stands in the original. Translators of the LXX render it with kurios. Paul’s quotation is nearly verbatim with the LXX.

Many have taken note of Paul’s practice of quoting and/or alluding to scripture which originally contained the divine name. 49{ }^{49} These quotations have been termed “YHWH texts.” A YHWH text is a quotation of or an allusion to an Old Testament text which refers directly to the divine name ( yhwhy h w h ) in the Hebrew Bible. 50{ }^{50} Since Paul quotes mostly from the LXX and since kurios replaces the divine name therein, Paul’s YHWH texts are at the same time kurios texts (e.g., Rom 4:7-8, 9:27-29; 11:34; 14:11; 1 Cor 1:31; 2:16: 10:26; 2 Cor 3:16; 6:18; Phil 2:10-11). Contextual anlaysis suggests that he is able to refer YHWH texts to either God the Father or Christ. 51{ }^{51}

Several factors indicate that Paul applies this Old Testament YHWH text to Jesus. 52{ }^{52} First, whereas the bulk of Romans 9-11 is theocentric, this portion of Paul’s discourse is primarily christocentric as is evident by previous discussion. Second, clear references to the resurrection in 10:6-7 and 10:9 suggest that kurios refers to Christ. As other Pauline passages indicate, the apostle understands the title kurios belongs to Jesus as a result of the resurrection (e.g., Rom 1:3-4; 14:8-9; Phil 2:9-11). Third, the relationship of these verses to eschatological salvation also intimate that Paul applies this YHWH text to Jesus. It is his custom to relate salvation ultimately to the eschaton as evidenced by the future tense verbs, sōthēsē (10:9), kataischunthēsetai (10:11), and sōthēsetai (10:13). Generally, he connects his doctrine of final things to the person of Christ via the kurios predicate. 53{ }^{53} Finally, further evidence that Paul relates this YHWH text in Rom 10:13 to the Lord Jesus is found in the christological confession in 10:9. He characterizes his preaching and the appropriate faith response with the confession “Jesus is Lord” (kurion lēsoun). He then proceeds to quote Joel 2:32, a text which contains the kurios predicate. It seems likely that he understands Jesus to be the kurios not only of the Christian confession but also of Joel 2:32. To construe it otherwise would promote confusion. So in light of the christocentric focus of Rom 9:33-10:13, the emphasis upon the resurrection, the relation with Paul’s eschatology, and the confession “Jesus is Lord,” there can be little doubt that in quoting Joel 2:32 Paul refers this YHWH text to the Lord Jesus Christ.

IV

As the apostle grapples with the failure of many Jews to put faith in Messiah Jesus, his use of scripture in Rom 9:30-10:13 proves crucial to his entire discourse. He appropriates a variety of methods in his exegesis including (1) the use of introductory formulas, (2) quotations merged around the key word “stone”, (3) line-by-line commentary (pesher), and (4) the alteration of scripture to accord with his own theological perspective.

Standing behind Paul’s use of scripture is his conviction that Christ is climax of the covenant (10:4). As N. T. Wright notes, through scrip-

tural exegesis Paul expresses "the essentially Jewish story now redrawn around Jesus. 154{ }^{154} The apostle offers a new reading of the Hebrew Bible, because he finds in Christ the resolution of Israel’s unresolved story. At the same time he discovers scriptural warrant for the situation at hand, namely, Israel’s unbelief. From Israel’s past he recounts God’s gift of the land and commandments (Deuteronomy) to discredit any attempt to establish self-righteousness. He remembers God’s past judgments against Israel’s disobedience (Isaiah), providing some rationale for understanding the plight of the disobedient in Paul’s day. He recalls the promised reversal of Israel’s shame and expresses his still unresolved hope in the eschaton, a hope now reckoned in universal terms and reconfigured exegetically around Jesus.

As Israel’s story intersects with Jesus’, Paul interprets scripture as depicting (1) the descent of Christ from heaven and (2) the ascent of Christ by resurrection from the dead. Although his commentary does not demand a fully developed doctrine of incarnation, it does suggest that Paul understands the Messiah as a pre-existent, heavenly being and it provides the drive for further incarnational development. The descent and ascent of Christ are framed by other scriptural texts in which Paul describes Jesus as the “stumbling stone” and “Lord.” In both cases the original context identifies YHWH as the stone of stumbling (Isaiah 8 and 28) and the Lord upon whom one must call (Joel 2).

Paul’s application of these texts and contexts to Jesus has significant christological implications. At the level of exegesis he brings Christ and God into such close connection that the lines of distinction blur. He suggests that Christ existed previously in heaven and came down to manifest saving righteousness. He posits Christ in roles reserved in scripture only for God. He quotes texts containing the holy, ineffable name of God and applies them to Christ. Though some insist that Paul never identifies Christ with God in any substantial manner, 55{ }^{55} this study calls that conclusion into question. Through comments on Israel’s sacred texts Paul attributes to Christ a pre-existent, heavenly status, divine functions, and even the divine name, thus associating him essentially with YHWH.

NOTES

‘E. Earle Ellis, Paul’s Use of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1957), 160-70, lists twenty-six quotations and/or allusions to the Old Testament in Romans 9-11.
a{ }^{a} Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989), 74-75, concludes - incorrectly to my mind - that Rom 9:30-10:21 is “parenthetical” to Paul’s overall argument in Romans 9-11. If it is parenthetical, could it be eliminated without diminishing the argument? The answer is clearly no. For Paul God’s righteousness is meaningless with reference to Christ. The christological confession, “Jesus is Lord,” and the word of faith preached by Paul was the ideational boundary-marker between Paul’s Jewish-Gentile churches and his countrymen “cut off” from Christ (Rom 9:3). Paul’s clear presentation of the righteousness of God as coming dia pisteōs lēsou Christou in Rom 3:21-26 militates against Hays’ conclusion.
‘E.g., E. P. Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983), 41.
a { }^{\text {a }} Donald Juel, Messianic Exegesis: Christological Interpretation of the Old Testament in Early Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), 1-3, suggests that the driving force of early Christian exposition of scripture is the confession, “Jesus is the Messiah.” See also Richard Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 207; and J. Christiaan Beker, Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980), 251-2, understands that “Christ is the canon within the canon” and for Paul, Christ is “the hermeneutical key to Scripture.”
b { }^{\text {b }} The notion of “pursuing righteousness” may arise from the Wisdom tradition. E.g., Sir 27:8: “if you pursue the righteous/you will obtain it and wear it as a robe of glory.” Also, Prov 15:9: “the ways of the ungodly are an abomination of the Lord, but he loves those who pursue righteousness.” Note also 4Q295. Unless otherwise noted, the author is responsible for translations.
® { }^{\text {® }} Presumably, he intends “works of law.” Later copyists no doubt understood it so, since they added the genitive nómou following “works” sinaiticus’ D Y (H).
'E. Earle Ellis, The Old Testament in Early Christianity (Grand Rapids: Baker,

1991), 87, 131; idem, Paul’s Use, 50; Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985), 248-9; Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis, 32-37; Juel, Messianic Exegesis, 38-42; Hillel’s rules are set out in t. Sanh. 7.11.
8{ }^{8} R. E. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, NCBC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 229, comments that the satirical language of Isaiah refers to international treaties negotiated with Egypt.
"Paul Meyer, “Romans 10:4 and the End of the Law,” in The Divine Helmsman (New York: KTAV, 1980), 64.
10{ }^{10} C. K. Barrett, “Romans 9:30-10:21: Fall and Responsibility in Israel,” in Essays on Paul (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1982), 144.
11{ }^{11} J. R. Harris, Testimonies (Cambridge: University Press, 1920). C. H. Dodd, According to the Scriptures (London: Nisbet, 1952). Jeremias, TDNT, 4:272-3. Isa 8:14 is quoted or alluded to in Matt 16:23; 21:42; Luke 2:34; and 1 Pet 2:8. Isa 28:16 is quoted or alluded to in Matt 21:42; Luke 20:17; Eph 2:20, 2 Tim 2:19; and 1 Pet 2:4; 6.
12{ }^{12} Jeremias, TDNT, 4:272-3 is followed by Käsemann, Romans, 278-9. Josephus Antiquities 10.210, for example, knows of messianic connections to the “stone” passage in Dan 2:34ff.
13{ }^{13} Sanders, Paul, 37.
14{ }^{14} See L. Joseph Kreitzer, Jesus and God in Paul’s Eschatology (Sheffield, UK: Academic Press, 1987), 112-29, who explores the eschatology of Jewish pseudepigraphical texts (1 Enoch, Jubilees, 2 Enoch, 4 Ezra, and 2 Baruch) and its probable impact upon Paul’s thinking. He concludes that Paul’s writings exhibit a “conceptual ambiguity” regarding the eschatological roles of God and Christ. In some places there is “an outright substitution of christocentricism for theocentricism” which occurs with Old Testament quotations and allusions. These “referential shifts” center primarily upon the kurios title.
15{ }^{15} Hays, Echoes, 75.
16{ }^{16} Käsemann, Romans, 280-81.
17{ }^{17} Sanders, Paul, 39, offers the following translation of Rom 10:4: “Christ is the end of the Law; the result of that righteousness is available to all who faith.”
18{ }^{18} There is only a slight variation from Paul’s quotation and the LXX. Since

the purpose of this paper is to analyze quotations and allusions which Paul explains christologically and since he does not so use Lev 18:5; it is noted here only in passing as part of the entire argument.
18{ }^{18} James D. G. Dunn, “‘Righteousness from the Law’ and ‘Righteousness from Faith’: Paul’s Interpretation of Scripture in Rom 10:1-10,” in Tradition and Interpretation in the New Testament: Essays in Honor of E. Earle Ellis for His 60th Birthday, ed. Gerald F. Hawthorne and Otto Betz (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 216-26.
20 W{ }^{20} \mathrm{~W}. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, The Epistle to the Romans, (1902), 289. See also Richard Longenecker, Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 121, who agrees but admits they are scripturally grounded.
21{ }^{21} Jack Suggs, “‘The Word Is Near You’: Rom 10:6-10 within the Purpose of the Letter,” in Christian History and Interpretation: Studies Presented to John Knox, pp. 289-312 (Cambridge: University Press, 1967), 300-302.
22{ }^{22} Hays, Echoes, 79. See also Ellis, Prophecy, 161; Wright, People of God, 242.
23{ }^{23} Wright, Climax, 231-57.
24{ }^{24} Suggs, 308-309; Dunn, “Rom 10:1-10,” 220.
25{ }^{25} Dunn, “Rom 10:1-10,” 217, explains the variation of Paul’s words from Deuteronomy in light of Targum Neofiti which relates the story of Jonah’s descent into the abyss. Cf. Philo Post 84-85.
26{ }^{26} On the identification of Wisdom-Torah-Christ, see W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980), 147-76. See also Suggs, 302-304.
27{ }^{27} Cranfield, Romans, 2:525; Barrett, Romans, 6.
28{ }^{28} On religious experiences as evocative events see Hurtado, One God, One Lord, 114-2.
29{ }^{29} James D. G. Dunn, Christology in the Making: A New Testament Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1980), 184-7; similarly, Käsemann, Romans, 290.
30{ }^{30} See James D. Tabor, Things Unutterable: Paul’s Ascent to Paradise in its Greco-Roman, Judaic, and Early Christian Contexts (Lanham, MD; University Press of America, 1986).

31{ }^{31} Hays, Echoes, 79; Barrett, “Rom 9:30-10:31,” 148-9. Note the following examples of Christ’s nearness to his followers in Paul: Rom 8:9-10 “Christ is in you”; Rom 8:36 nothing “is able to separate from the love of God which is in Christ Jesus our Lord”; Col 1:27 “Christ in you the hope of glory.” See also Longenecker, Christology, 60.
32{ }^{32} Hays, Echoes, 80, says that Christ as Torah-Wisdom is not stated explicitly but implicitly as “echo.”
33{ }^{33} Wright, People of God, 403-409. To interpret 10:6-7 as (a) ascension and (b) resurrection is to violate the narrative structure of Paul’s story of Jesus. Besides I am not aware of any place where Paul separates resurrection from ascension. Contra Dunn, Christology, 184-7.
34{ }^{34} See N. T. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991), 56-98; Ralph Martin, Carmen Christi: Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983). Otherwise see Dunn, Christology, 114-28.
35 A{ }^{35} \mathrm{~A} similar tradition is reflected in John 3:13 which declares that the Son of Man descended from heaven. Otherwise see Gordon Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 791-2; C. K. Barrett, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, HNTC (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 375-6, who emphasizes the Second Advent. Jesus is the man who will come from heaven. Such reading is problematic, however, since Paul discusses the origin of Adam and Christ.
36{ }^{36} John 3:13; 6:62; 1 Pet 3:18-22; 1 Tim 3:16. See Richard Longenecker, The Christology of Early Jewish Christianity (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1970), 58-62.
37{ }^{37} M. J. Lagrange, Saint Paul: Epitre aux Romains (Paris: J. Gabalda, 1922), 258, comments: “c’est la raison donné par tous.” Otherwise see Käsemann, Romans, 290.
38{ }^{38} E.g., Oscar Cullmann, The Earliest Christian Confessions, trans. J. K. S. Reid (London: Lutterworth Press, 1949), 28-29; Rudolph Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament, 2 vols, trans. Kendrick Grobel (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951-55), 1:121-8; Leonhard Goppelt, Theology of the New Testament, 2 vols, trans. John Alsup (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), 2:79-86.

39{ }^{39} Longenecker, Christology, 127; cf. Werner Kramer, Christ, Lord, Son of God, trans. Brian Hardy (Naperville, IL: A. R. Allenson, 1966), 65.
40{ }^{40} Note the explanatory use of gar. Cranfield, Romans, 2:531.
41{ }^{41} See Jacques Dupont, “‘Le Seigneur de tous’ (Ac 10:36; Rm 10:12): Amiérefond scripturaire d’une formule christologique,” in Tradition and Interpretation in the New Testament: Essays in Honor of E. Earle Ellis, ed Gerald Hawthorne and Otto Betz (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 229-30; Cranfield, Romans, 2:531, said the addition of pas “makes explicit what is implicit in his understanding of the verse.”
42{ }^{42} Kreitzer, Jesus and God, 124: Cranfield, Romans, 2:531.
43{ }^{43} Cranfield, Romans, 2:531; John Murray, The Epistle to the Romans, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959), 2:55.
44{ }^{44} K. L. Schmidt, “epikaleō,” TDNT, 3:496-500.
45{ }^{45} Otherwise see Käsemann, Romans, 292, who denies that prayers were offered to Jesus in early Christianity. He relates the word primarily to preaching and confession.
46{ }^{46} Ellis, Paul’s Use, 151, 187; see also Lucien Cerfaux, “«Kyrios» dans les citations pauliniennes de l’Ancien Testament,” chap. in Recueil Lucien Cerfaux: Etudes d’exegese et d’histoire religieuse de Monseigneur Cerfaux, vol. 1 (Gemblux: J. Duculot, 1954), 179.
47{ }^{47} See David B. Capes, Old Testament Yahweh Texts in Paul’s Christology, WUNT 2/47 (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1992), 43-89; Goppelt, Theology, 2:79, stated that it is “almost exclusively a designation for Christ.”
48{ }^{48} The Hebrew text quoted is from Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1977); the LXX quoted is from Septuaginta, ed. Alfred Rahlfs, 2 vols (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1979); the NT is quoted from NA26\mathrm{NA}^{26}.
49{ }^{49} E.g., Cerfaux, “Kyrios,” 173-88; Ellis, Prophecy, 182-7; Cranfield, Romans, 2:710; Werner Foerster, “kurios” TDNT, 3:1039-58, 1081-95; Capes, Yahweh Texts, 90-183.
50{ }^{50} Capes, Yahweh Texts, 3.

51{ }^{51} Foerster, TDNT, 3:1086-94; Cerfaux, “Kyrios,” 173-88; Capes, Yahweh Texts, 90−15990-159.
52{ }^{52} Cerfaux, “Kyrios,” 179; Kreitzer, Jesus and God, 114, 124.
53{ }^{53} E.g., 1 Thess 4:6; 5:2, 9; 2 Thess 2:8; 1 Cor 1:7-8; 4:4-5; 5:3-5; 11:32; 2 Cor 1:14;88. Capes, Yahweh Texts, 82-88.
54{ }^{54} Wright, People of God, 78-79.
55{ }^{55} Robin Scroggs, Christology in Paul and John (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), 52 .