Hydrogeochemical and hydrogeological investigations of thermal waters in the Emet area (Kütahya, Turkey) (original) (raw)
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Hydrogeochemical and hydrogeological investigations of thermal waters in the Usak Area (Turkey)
Environmental Geology, 2007
Thermal waters of the Usak area have temperatures ranging from 33 to 63°C and different chemical compositions. These waters hosted by the Menderes Metamorphic rocks emerge along fault lineaments from two geothermal reservoirs in the area. The first reservoir consists of gneiss, schists, and marbles of the Menderes Metamorphic rocks. The recorded reservoir is Pliocene lacustrine limestone. Hydrogeochemical studies indicate that thermal waters were mixed with surface waters before and/or after heating at depth. The results of mineral equilibrium modeling indicate that all the thermal waters are undersaturated at discharge temperatures for gypsum, anhydrite, and magnesite minerals. Calcite, dolomite, aragonite, quartz, and chalcedony minerals are oversaturated in all of the thermal waters. Water from the reservoir temperatures of the Usak area can reach upto120°C. According to d 18 O and d 2 H values, all thermal and cold groundwater are of meteoric origin.
African Journal of …, 2011
Alasehir graben is located in the southern edge of the Gediz graben, which is an important graben for geothermal activity. Thermal waters are hosted by Menderes massif metamorphic rocks, which are made of gneisses, schists and marbles. Impermeable clayey units of the neogene sediments are cap rocks of the geothermal system. Presence of geothermal waters is closely related to normal fault systems and graben tectonic. Meteoric waters recharging the reservoir rocks are heated at depth with geothermal gradient. The AK-2 and KG-1 wells have the third and fourth highest temperatures of Turkey, respectively. Reservoir temperatures of the geothermal system are estimated to vary between 125 and 225°C by mineral equilibria geothermometer, vary between 160 and 240°C by Giggenbach triangular diagram and vary between 150 and 250°C by silica enthalpy-mixture model. Cold water contributions to thermal waters vary from 75 to 95%. Na-HCO 3 water type is dominant for thermal water. Major reaction of the thermal water to change facies is softening reaction. The temperatures obtained from silica enthalpy model, mineral equalibria geothermometers, Na/K, Na/Li geothermometers are more useful than others in the study area. Scaling tendencies of the thermal water are examined. The major environmental problem in the groundwater is high boron concentration which is harmful for agricultural irrigation.
Environmental Earth Sciences, 2011
The Terme and Karakurt thermal resorts are located in the center of Kirşehir city in central Anatolia. Thermal waters with temperatures of 44-60°C are used for central heating and balneologic purposes. Paleozoic rocks of the Kirşehir Massif are the oldest units in the study area. The basement of the Massif comprises Paleozoic metamorphic schist and marbles which partly contain white quartzite layers of a few tens of cm thickness. The metamorphic schists which are cut by granites of Paleocene age are overlain by horizontally bedded conglomerate, sandstone, claystone, and limestone of upper Paleocene-Eocene age. Among the thermal and cold waters collected from the areas of Terme and Karakurt, those from thermal waters are enriched with Ca-HCO 3 and cold waters are of Ca-Mg-HCO 3 type waters. The pH values of samples are 6.31-7.04 for the thermal well waters, 6.41 for thermal spring, 7.25 and 7.29 for the cold waters, and 7.52 for the Hirla lake water. EC values are 917-2,295 lS/cm for the thermal well waters, 2,078 lS/cm for thermal spring, and 471 and 820 lS/cm for the cold springs. The lowest TDS content is from water of T10 thermal well in the Terme area (740.6 mg/l). The hot and cold waters of Terme show very similar ion contents while the Karakurt hot waters at western most parts are characterized by distinct chemical compositions. There is ion exchange in thermal waters from the T5 (5), T6 (6), T12 (7), and T1 (8) wells in the Terme area. The thermal waters show low concentrations of Fe, Mn, Ni, Al, As, Pb, Zn and Cu. Waters in the study area are of meteoric origin, and rainwater percolated downwards through faults and fractures, and are heated by the geothermal gradient, later rising to the surface along permeable zones. d 13 C VPDB values measured on dissolved inorganic carbon in samples range from-1.65 to ?5.61% for thermal waters and from-11.81 to-10.15% for cold waters. Carbon in thermal waters is derived from marine carbonates or CO 2 of metamorphic origin while carbon in cold waters originates from freshwater carbonates.
Hydrogeochemistry of thermal and mineralized waters in the Diyadin (Ağri) area, Eastern Turkey
Applied Geochemistry, 2013
The Diyadin Geothermal area, located in the eastern part of Anatolia (Turkey) where there has been recent volcanic activity, is favorable for the formation of geothermal systems. Indeed, the Diyadin geothermal system is located in an active geodynamic zone, where strike-slip faults and tensional cracks have developed due to N-S regional compression. The area is characterized by closely spaced thermal and mineralized springs, with temperatures in the range 30-64°C, and flowrates 0.5-10 L/sec. Thermal spring waters are mainly of Ca(Na)-HCO 3 and Ca(Mg)-SO 4 types, with high salinity, while cold groundwater is mostly of Ca(Na, Mg)-HCO 3 type, with lower salinity. High contents of some minor elements in thermal waters, such as: F, B, Li, Rb, Sr and Cs probably derive from enhanced water-rock interaction. Thermal water samples collected from Diyadin are far from chemical equilibrium as the waters flow upward from reservoirs towards spring vents and possibly mix with cooler waters. The temperatures of the deep geothermal reservoirs are estimated to be between 92 to156 °C in Diyadin field, based on quartz geothermometry, while slightly lower estimates are obtained using chalcedony geothermometers. The isotopic composition of thermal water (δ 18 O, δ 2 H, δ 3 H) indicates their deep-circulating meteoric origin. The waters are likely to have originated from the percolation of rainwater along fractures and faults to the deep hot reservoir. Subsequent heating by conduction due to the presence of an intrusive cupola associated with the Tendurek volcano, is followed by the ascent of deep waters to the surface along faults and fractures that act as hydrothermal conduits. Modeling of the geothermal fluids indicates that the fluid is oversaturated with calcite, aragonite and dolomite, which matches travertine precipitation in the discharge area. Likewise, the fluid is oversaturated with respect to quartz, and chalcedony indicating the possibility of siliceous precipitation near the discharge areas. A conceptual hydro-geochemical model of the Diyadin thermal waters based on the isotope and chemical analytical results, has been constructed.
Procedia Earth and Planetary Science, 2017
From Early to Middle Miocene, the continental rift zones of the Büyük Menderes, the Küçük Menderes and the Gediz were formed by extensional tectonic features, which generally strike E-W and are represented by a great number of geothermal waters, epithermal Hg, Sb and Au mineralizations, and volcanic rocks of Middle Miocene to recent age. The geothermal waters and epithermal mineralizations are related to faults, which strike preferentially NW-SE and NE-SW and are located transversely to the general strike of the rift zones. These faults are probably generated by compressional tectonic stress, which leads to the deformation of uplift between two extensional rift zones. One of these continental rift zones is the rıft zone of the Büyük Menderes which is ascribed to a great number of geothermal waters such as those issuing in very important locations of Kızıldere, Tekkehamam, Salavatlı, Germencik and others with a geothermal capacity of 860 MWe in the next future. The geothermal waters of Tekkehamam and surroundings are identified to belong to the Na+K>Ca>Na and HCO 3 >SO 4 >CI facies. According to the Cl-SO 4-HCO 3 diagram the geothermal waters might be heated by a magmatic source due to the high content of sulfate and boron in geothermal waters. Geochemical thermometers were applied to the collected samples in the region. According to the Na-K-Mg diagram (1), part of the geothermal waters can be considered as equilibrated geothermal waters. According to the results of geochemical thermometers, the reservoir temperatures of geothermal waters range from 160 to 250°C. The δ 2 H values of geothermal waters are between-61.9 to-51.8, while δ 18 O values range from-9.23 to-5.84. The tritium contents of geothermal waters are between 0.7 to 3.3 TU. These results show that there is no mixing with cold groundwaters.
Geochemistry and conceptual model of thermal waters from Erciş - Zilan Valley, Eastern Turkey
Geothermics, 2020
Faults related to the neotectonic stress regime of Eastern Anatolia permit the rise and outflow of thermal waters in the Zilan Valley located 30 km north of the Erciş, Van province. Thermal springs discharge in a volcanic terrain, often in clusters, along faults in two separate areas: In the vicinity of Taşkapı (Şörköy) and Gergili villages, which lie in the north of the area; and in the area of Hasanabdal (Doğancı) thermal springs that lie to the south of the Zilan Valley. Temperatures of the springs range from 20 to 78°C, with discharge rates of 4−20 L/s. Thermal waters of the Zilan region are of different types, from Na−HCO 3 to Na-Cl, with dissolved ion concentrations varying over a wide range between 484-4572 mg/L. Calcite dissolution and silicate hydrolysis are the dominant water-rock interactions. Constituents with minor and trace element concentrations reinforce conclusions drawn from major-ion composition that the major hydrogeochemical processes are: mixing between cold-shallow and hot-deep waters, loss of energy by heat conduction, and steam-heating of perched-aquifers. The cold spring and Zilan Creek waters are of the Ca−HCO 3 and Na−HCO 3 type respectively, and their dissolved ion concentrations are low. Hydrogeochemical processes for the cold waters involve carbonate dissolution and silicate weathering reactions. Chemical geothermometers are used to estimate the temperature of the deep fluids using the chemical composition of the less modified fluids. They indicate that fluids emerging from volcanic rocks in the Zilan valley reach temperatures of around 150°C. Thermal waters, generated through conductive heat transfer or the input of geothermal vapor or gases from below, delineate the extent of the geothermal reservoir(s) at depth. Deuterium and oxygen-18 signatures of thermal waters indicate that they are at least partially derived from thermally heated water through a process of 18 O enrichment owing to interaction with the marine limestones through which the water passes to the surface springs. Both geochemical and isotope data indicate that the Zilan Valley hosts a low temperature, fracture-zone system with aconvective up-flow and dominant conductive heat transfer from a resource base in the upper crust to the surface. Ore deposits in the Zilan Valley, hydrothermal alteration in the Şörköy lava, and high concentrations of As, Au, Hg, Zr, Ba, Ni, Sb and other trace elements that are present in the travertine is the evidence for a heat source formed at a shallower depth. A conceptual model of the geothermal system of Zilan is proposed based on adata gathered.
Environmental Earth Sciences, 2011
The Hamambogazi spa in western Turkey was built around natural hot springs with discharge temperatures in the range of 30-54°C; the waters have near neutral pH values of 6.50-7.10 and a TDS content between 2,694 and 2,982 mg/l. Thermal water with a temperature of 47.5-73°C has been produced at 325 l/s from five wells since 1994, causing some springs to go dry. A management plan is required in the study area to maximize the benefits of this resource, for which currently proposed direct uses include heating in the district and greenhouses, as well as balneology in new spas in the area. The best use for the water from each spring or well will depend on its temperature, chemistry and location. The thermal waters are mixed Na-Mg-HCO 3-SO 4 fluids that contain a significant amount of CO 2 gas. The chemical geothermometers applied to the Hamambogazi thermal waters yield a maximum reservoir temperature of 130°C. Isotope results (18 O, 2 H, 3 H) indicate that the thermal waters have a meteoric origin: rainwater percolates downward along fractures and faults, is heated at depth, and then rises to the surface along fractures and faults that act as a hydrothermal conduit. The basement around the Banaz Hamambogazi resort is comprised of Paleozoic metamorphic schist and marbles exposed 8 km south and 15 km north of Banaz. Mesozoic marble, limestone and ophiolitic complex are observed a few km west and in the northern part of Banaz. These units were cut at a depth of 350-480 m in boreholes drilled in the area. Overlying lacustrine deposits are composed of fine clastic units that alternate with gypsum, tuff and tuffites of 200-350 m thickness. The marble and limestones form the thermal water aquifer, while lacustrine deposits form the impermeable cap.
Hydrogeochemistry of Geothermal Resources in the Eastern Part of Turkey: A Case Study, Varto Region
Varto, in the eastern part of Turkey, is settled around the conjunction point of the East Anatolian (EAF) and North Anatolian (NAF) Fault zones. The border of these tectonic zones constitutes seismic belts marked by young volcanic associations and active faults, the latter allowing circulation of waters as well as heat. For this reason, there are various geothermal systems having several hot water springs in the region. The distribution of hot water springs in the Varto Region roughly parallels the distribution of the fault systems and young volcanism. Samples from five hot water and two mineral water springs together with cold (peripheral) waters were collected. Hot water samples were assessed through geothermometers in terms of geothermal usage opportunities. All water samples were measured and analyzed for physical, chemical and isotopic compositions. Physical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC; µS/cm) and temperature (T; ºC) were measured in field. Primary (major ions) and secondary constituents (trace elements and heavy metals) and Oxygen 18 ( 18 O), Deuterium (D), Tritium ( 3 H) isotopic compositions were determined by mass spectrometry. Average discharges of hot water springs in the study area are between 1 -5 L/sec. Surface temperatures of these springs vary 22.5 to 32ºC, electrical conductivity (EC) values 2100 to 5775µS/cm. Average discharges of mineral waters in that site are between 0.5 -2 L/sec. Surface temperatures of them were measured as 13.2 and 14.8ºC. Their electrical conductivity values are also in the range of 719 -751 µS/cm. The average discharges of cold water springs in the study area are between 1 -150 L/sec. Surface temperatures of these springs change between 4.9 -11.7ºC and electrical conductivity values 51 -199 µS/cm. Regarding pH values, water samples belonging to the site are entirely distinguished into the pH range of ~5.4 -~6.2 for hot and mineral waters, ~6.2 -~7.7 for cold waters. Hot water springs have acidic character, whereas pH values of cold water springs change from slightly acidic to neutral and slightly basic. In the vicinity of the study area, volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks crop out. Groundwater flow in the volcanic rocks is also controlled by the presence of structural features as suggested by the alignment of the springs. Their cooling fractures extend several meters in depth, providing a good avenue for deep penetration and circulation of groundwater. According to the Piper diagram, springs fall into Na-HCO 3 -Cl type for thermal waters and Ca-HCO 3 type for cold waters. Due to the fractures allowing deep circulation of groundwater and dominant Na-Cl component, the host rock is probably volcanic origin. Hot waters have the same recharge area with cold waters. The information on the fluid origin and the age of springs depicted by their 18 O-D and T contents shows that they are all meteoric origin and hot water springs are older than 50 years. Reliable reservoir temperature ranges for hot waters were obtained with Li-Mg geothermometer and β-Cristobalite geothermometer as 44 -66ºC and 54 -80ºC, respectively. These values are also checked with Saturation Indices (SI) vs T diagrams. Results of SI vs T diagrams point out equilibration with calcite and aragonite minerals which gives comparable results with Li-Mg and β-Cristobalite geothermometers. It is possible to get 80°C reservoir temperature by drilling in this area with the help of field observations and the data obtained. The geothermal potential of the study area have not been used up to now. This geothermal district might make a considerable contribution to tourism and agriculture usages.
Hydrogeology Journal, 1999
The present study identifies the hydrochemical and isotopic properties of the Mahmutlu and Bağdatoğlu mineralized thermal springs in Kırşehir province, a geothermal field in central Anatolia, Turkey. Based on these properties, a hydrogeological regime is proposed in order to explain the Mahmutlu–Bağdatoğlu geothermal system. The relation between the concentrations of the environmental stable isotopes deuterium and oxygen-18 in the water is similar to the relationship in global meteoric water, indicating that the water is of meteoric origin. Evaluation of the geochemical characteristics of the water reveals that these two thermal springs belong to the same hydrogeological system. The hydrogeological system comprises a fractured limestone member of the Çevirme Formation and the Kervansaray Formation as reservoir rocks, and the Deliceırmak Formation as an overlying aquitard. The waters of the Mahmutlu and Bağdatoğlu springs are mainly of the Na-Cl-SO4 type that originate from the Pohrenk evaporite. The thermal waters are undersaturated with respect to calcite, dolomite, halite, and gypsum. The δ 18O and δ 2H contents indicate a δ 18O shift in the Mahmutlu and Bağdatoğlu waters. The temperature range of the two reservoirs is estimated to be 98–158 °C, on the basis of Na+K+Ca and SiO2 geothermometers. Cette étude présente les caractéristiques chimiques et isotopiques des sources thermales minéralisées de Mahmutlu et de Bağdatoğlu, dans la province de Kırşehir, un champ géothermal d'Anatolie centrale (Turquie). Un fonctionnement hydrogéologique est proposéà partir de ces caractéristiques, permettant d'expliquer le système géothermal de Mahmatlu-Bağdatoğlu. La relation entre les teneurs en deutérium et celles en oxygène-18 des eaux est semblable à celle des eaux météoriques mondiales, ce qui indique que l'eau est d'origine météorique. Les caractéristiques géochimiques des eaux de ces deux sources montrent qu'elles appartiennent au même système hydrogéologique. Ce système hydrogéologique est constitué d'un ensemble calcaire fracturé, appartenant à la formation d'Evirme, et la formation de Kervansaray, qui forment le réservoir, et la formation de Deliceırmak, qui est l'imperméable de couverture. Les eaux de Mahmutlu et de de Bağdatoğlu sont essentiellement de faciès Na-Cl-SO4, dont l'origine est l'évaporite de Pohrenk. Les eaux thermales sont sous-saturées par rapport à la calcite, à la dolomite, à la halite et au gypse. Les teneurs en δ 18O et en δ 2H indiquent un fractionnement de δ 18O dans les eaux de ces sources. La gamme de températures des deux réservoirs est estimée à 98-158 °C, à partir des géothermomètres Na+K+Ca et SiO2.
Hydrogeochemical Study of the Selected Thermal and Mineral Waters in Dikili Town, İzmir, Turkey
2005
Selected thermal and mineral waters of Dikili town have been physically divided into three groups; Dikili Spa, Kaynarca and Kocaoba geothermal areas. Thermal and mineral waters, issuing from natural springs and drilling wells, were evaluated from hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical points of view. Origins, mineral saturations, aquifer temperatures, aquifer fluid compositions and aqueous species distributions have been studied by using analytical data of waters. Miocene Yuntdağ volcanic-I, which consists of andesitic volcanics, is the oldest unit and occurs as aquifer for aforementioned all the geothermal systems. Overlying Pliocene Demirtaş pyroclastics, which are ignimbrite and felsic pyroclastics, cap the systems because of their low permeability values. Quaternary alluvium is the aquifer for cold ground waters.