Language and Reading Progress of Young Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children (original) (raw)
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Language and literacy development of deaf and hard-of-hearing children: Successes and challenges
Developmental Psychology, 2013
Childhood hearing loss presents challenges to language development, especially spoken language. In this article, we review existing literature on deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children's patterns and trajectories of language as well as development of theory of mind and literacy. Individual trajectories vary significantly, reflecting access to early identification/intervention, advanced technologies (e.g., cochlear implants), and perceptually accessible language models. DHH children develop sign language in a similar manner as hearing children develop spoken language, provided they are in a language-rich environment. This occurs naturally for DHH children of deaf parents, who constitute 5% of the deaf population. For DHH children of hearing parents, sign language development depends on the age that they are exposed to a perceptually accessible 1st language as well as the richness of input. Most DHH children are born to hearing families who have spoken language as a goal, and such development is now feasible for many children. Some DHH children develop spoken language in bilingual (sign-spoken language) contexts. For the majority of DHH children, spoken language development occurs in either auditory-only contexts or with sign supports. Although developmental trajectories of DHH children with hearing parents have improved with early identification and appropriate interventions, the majority of children are still delayed compared with hearing children. These DHH children show particular weaknesses in the development of grammar. Language deficits and differences have cascading effects in language-related areas of development, such as theory of mind and literacy development.
Language Development and Deaf/Hard of Hearing Children
Education Sciences, 2019
This article explores the available research literature on language development and language interventions among deaf and hard of hearing (d/hh) children. This literature is divided into two broad categories: Research on natural languages (specifically American Sign Language and spoken English) and research on communication systems (specifically iterations of signed English and cued speech). These bodies of literature are summarized, with special attention paid to intervention research and research exploring the impacts of language skills on literacy development. Findings indicate that there is generally a stronger research base on natural languages as compared to communication systems, though more studies in both categories are necessary. Additionally, there are very few intervention studies and even fewer that aim to intervene upon language with the explicit goal of impacting literacy; therefore, there is little known about whether and how interventions that aim to support language development may have direct or indirect impacts on literacy within this population. Further research on this topic, as well as replication studies and research with larger sample sizes, is strongly recommended.
Evaluating the Structure of Early Literacy Skills in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children.
Better understanding the mechanisms underlying developing literacy has promoted the development of more effective reading interventions for typically developing children. Such knowledge may facilitate effective instruction of deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children. Hence, the current study examined the multivariate associations among phonological awareness, alphabetic knowledge, word reading, and vocabulary skills in DHH children who have auditory access to speech. One hundred and sixty-seven DHH children (M age = 60.43 months) were assessed with a battery of early literacy measures. Forty-six percent used at least 1 cochlear implant; 54% were fitted with hearing aids. About a fourth of the sample was acquiring both spoken English and sign. Scores on standardized tests of phonological awareness and vocabulary averaged at least 1 standard deviation (SD) below the mean of the hearing norming sample. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that DHH children's early literacy skills were best characterized by a complex 3-factor model in which phonological awareness, alphabetic knowledge, and vocabulary formed 3 separate, but highly correlated constructs, with letter-sound knowledge and word reading skills relating to both phonological awareness and alphabetic knowledge. This supports the hypothesis that early reading of DHH children with functional hearing is qualitatively similar to that of hearing children.
Evaluating the Structure of Early English Literacy Skills in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children
Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 2015
Better understanding the mechanisms underlying developing literacy has promoted the development of more effective reading interventions for typically developing children. Such knowledge may facilitate effective instruction of deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children. Hence, the current study examined the multivariate associations among phonological awareness, alphabetic knowledge, word reading, and vocabulary skills in DHH children who have auditory access to speech. One hundred and sixty-seven DHH children (M age = 60.43 months) were assessed with a battery of early literacy measures. Forty-six percent used at least 1 cochlear implant; 54% were fitted with hearing aids. About a fourth of the sample was acquiring both spoken English and sign. Scores on standardized tests of phonological awareness and vocabulary averaged at least 1 standard deviation (SD) below the mean of the hearing norming sample. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that DHH children's early literacy skills were best characterized by a complex 3-factor model in which phonological awareness, alphabetic knowledge, and vocabulary formed 3 separate, but highly correlated constructs, with letter-sound knowledge and word reading skills relating to both phonological awareness and alphabetic knowledge. This supports the hypothesis that early reading of DHH children with functional hearing is qualitatively similar to that of hearing children.
Current State of Knowledge: Language and Literacy of Children With Hearing Impairment
Ear and …, 2007
The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of past and current research regarding language and literacy development in children with mild to severe hearing impairment. A related goal is to identify gaps in the empirical literature and suggest future research directions. Included in the language development review are studies of semantics (vocabulary, novel word learning, and conceptual categories), morphology, and syntax. The literacy section begins by considering dimensions of literacy and the ways in which hearing impairment may influence them. It is followed by a discussion of existing evidence on reading and writing, and highlights key constructs that need to be addressed for a comprehensive understanding of literacy in these children. (Ear & Hearing 2007;28;740-753) Over the past decade, universal newborn hearing screening programs and advancements in sensory devices have improved the prospects for children with all degrees of hearing impairment (HI). These innovations have led to a resurgence of interest in research focused on various subpopulations of children with HI. This momentum is partly guided by practical interests, especially the need to strengthen the evidence base that guides the management of these children. Empirical study of this group also holds theoretical interest, as it allows researchers to explore the influences of auditory perception and auditory experience in foundational aspects of language and literacy development. In the 1970s and early 1980s, Dr. Julia Davis and colleagues at the University of Iowa called attention to the paucity of research on outcomes in children with mild to severe HI. As this review will show, there are still many gaps in the literature in relation to this group. Because of newborn hearing screening, we have the opportunity to close these gaps through prospective research, beginning in infancy. At this time, considerable efforts are being expended to identify these children early and to provide optimal hearing and communication services. Although there is increasing evidence that early-identified infants with HI progress in speech and language at rates that exceed later-identified peers (is need for further research documenting outcomes of this group of children. In the subsequent sections we will review the literature regarding the status of children with mild to severe HI and identify directions for future research efforts.
Challenges of Children Who Are d/Deaf and Hard of Hearing While Learning to Read
The International Journal of Literacies, 2019
Deaf and hard of hearing students (d/Dhh) encounter many challenges while learning to read. Unfortunately, students who struggle with literacy are at high risk for school failure overall and also may encounter lifelong problems finding employment. The purpose of this article was to review the greatest impediments d/Dhh children face in learning to read with respect to the five major components of the English language: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics and code-related skills, including print concepts, alphabet knowledge, emergent writing, and phonological-awareness skills. The results showed that d/Dhh children are able to learn just as their hearing peers do, but at a slower speed. Further, they achieve smaller incremental results in the learning process and, therefore, require additional services to help them learn to read.
Schooling effects on early literacy skills of young deaf and hard of hearing children
American Annals of the Deaf, 2019
Already well documented for hearing children, schooling's effects on early literacy skills for young students who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) were examined for the first time in the present study. Piecewise growth curve modeling was used to describe 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old students' growth in phonological awareness, letter-word identification, and vocabulary during 2 years of schooling and the intervening summer (N = 56). Amplification mode was cochlear implants for 45% of the sample and hearing aids for 54%. Classroom communication mode was spoken language only (for 61%) or sign language (39%). Across all skills, significant growth occurred during the 2 years of schooling but not during the summer. These findings underscore early education's importance in promoting DHH children's critical early skills. Universal preschool intervention, including during summer, may be important in ensuring that DHH children have an adequate foundation when schooling begins.
American Annals of the Deaf, 2016
English-language proficiency is critical if students who are deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH) are to read as their hearing peers. One explanation for the traditionally reported reading achievement plateau when students are D/HH is the inability to hear insalient English morphology. Signing Exact English can provide visual access to these features. The authors investigated the English morphological and syntactic abilities and reading achievement of elementary and middle school students at a school using simultaneously spoken and signed Standard American English facilitated by intentional listening, speech, and language strategies. A developmental trend (and no plateau) in language and reading achievement was detected; most participants demonstrated average or above-average English. Morphological awareness was prerequisite to high test scores; speech was not significantly correlated with achievement; language proficiency, measured by the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-4 (Semel, Wiig, & Secord, 2003), predicted reading achievement.