More that Forts: A Study of High Elevation Enclosures in the Pambamarca Fortress Complex, Ecuador (original) (raw)

Abstract This work explores the roles of several High Elevation Enclosures (or HEEs) found in the Pambamarca Fortress complex of Northern Ecuador. This region of Northern Ecuador, also known as the Pais Caranqui, is bounded by Quito in the south and the Columbia/Ecuador border in the north. It was one of the last places the Inca conquered before their empire fell to the Spanish in 1532, but their incursion was by no means easy or quick, and the Inca were forced to change their usual expansion tactics to deal with the resistive indigenous societies. Their decade long struggle is most evident in the construction of numerous fortresses with the largest cordon found in the Pambamarca Fortress Complex (PFC). Within this complex, many small enclosures were found and were assumed to have military or outpost status, although they had not been previously studied. Research at these sites shows they contained a variety of other important functions, such as economic way stations, communication posts, religions or ideological locales, and outposts. Understanding the true nature of these enclosures and their ties to the fortress complex has helped better define the nature of Inca warfare in the northern frontier. This dissertation is divided into three parts. Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 5 provide background information for the Inca, the Pais Caranqui societies of Northern Ecuador, Andean militaristic aspects utilized by the Inca, and the sites within the PFC. Chapter 2 discusses and outlines the birth of the Inca civilization, their eventual rise to power, and many of the characteristics and features that defined their culture and empire. Analysis and study of Inca ideological, religious, social, and economic systems are explored, as well geographic elements and features, spatial planning and architectural elements – all important facets which defined Inca culture. Chapter 3 provides cultural background information for the Pais Caranqui region of Northern Ecuador where the Pambamarca Fortress Complex is located. Economics, politics, social structures, and architecture for Pais Caranqui societies during the Late Period (AD 1250-1505/1520) are outlined and discussed, since understanding the societies of the Pais Caranqui not only helps comprehend Inca desire to control the region, but also aids in understanding the nature of conflict within the region. Chapter 4 outlines information related to Andean militarism, focusing on its physical manifestations, weaponry, and ritualized features. Understanding these Pan Andean characteristics and how the Inca applied them to their own struggles aids in understanding the nature of conflict in the Northern Andes. Chapter 5 defines and explores the fortresses and High Elevation Enclosures of the Pambamarca Fortress Complex. Characteristics of their construction and landscape placement are noted, as well as important militaristic or unique features found within each site. Part two explores various theoretical approaches applying them to the study of these High Elevation Enclosures. Chapter 6 outlines theories related to cores and periphery, especially in regards to World Systems Theory, Acculturation Models, Post-Colonial studies, and ideas of power and domination, such as hegemonic and territorial models of control. Standard Inca provincial strategies and control mechanisms utilized during conquest and expansion are explored in regards to the three main frontier regions of the Empire: the Southern frontier in Argentina and Chile, the Southeastern frontier in Bolivia, and the Northern frontier in Ecuador. Each area is discussed in terms of economic, political, social, and ideological factors, and evidence shows the Inca took a flexible approach to their empire, similar to the Romans and Wari, handling each area differently depending on the consequences of their rule, the people they were interacting with, and their desired outcomes. Rule in the South was characterized by indirect rule with an interest in the regions’ economic resources and ideological landscape, while in the North heavy and direct control was instilled due to the prolonged struggle. Chapter 7 further explores the ideological world of the Inca and its intricate ties to important landscape features (huacas), portable geological features, huaca offerings, ancestor worship, ideas of spiritual essence, and warfare. In order to better understand ideas of Inca essence, belonging, and ties to the landscape, materiality studies, Actor Network Theories, and landscape theories are reviewed. Many of these elements are then tied to Northern Ecuador and the landscape and constructions within the Pambamarca Fortress Complex, since understanding the relationship the Inca had with their natural and built environments aids greatly in appreciating the unique features uncovered in the High Elevation Enclosures of the PFC. Part three explores the methodology undertaken and data and interpretations from testing and excavation will be shared. Chapter 8 focuses on the use of non-destructive geo-chemical phosphate testing employed in this study. While the method has been touted as effective in many excavations in Europe, its use in South American archaeology is severely lacking. Soil samples were collected in the HEEs and chemical tests were run to determine areas with heightened phosphate, indicating human activity. These areas were then further explored through archaeological excavation and artifact analysis. Lastly, Chapter 9 discusses the associated findings and interpretations of each High Elevation Enclosure and their importance in understanding Inca warfare in the Northern Frontier. Analysis shows that only two of these sites may have served as outposts (and not necessarily at the same time or for the same reason), while the other sites were related to controlling and protecting trade routes and access to resources, communication posts, and ideological important locales associated with huaca worship. Many of these features display an intricate link between important Inca principles and warfare, which were imperative during conquest especially in such a highly contested region as the Northern frontier.