Variations on a religious theme : Jews and Muslims from the Eastern Mediterranean converting to Christianity, 17th and 18th Centuries (original) (raw)

Abstract

This study explores the religious conversion of Jews and Muslims to Christianity from the mid-17th to the 18th centuries in the international city of Venice and the port-city of Corfu. It does not focus on the subjective experiences and identity formation of candidate converts, but rather on the background situations that acted as catalysts for these people's decision to convert. More concretely, the study connects, on the one hand, the conversion of Jews to the impoverishment of a large part of the Jews in Europe in the period under consideration, while it also traces the existence of a minority of educated and wealthy Jewish converts, whose conversion it considers in connection to the crisis of Jewish identity in the late 18th century. On the other hand, the study traces two core elements in the lives and itineraries of Muslim candidate converts: a background of sustained familiarity with Christianity, and an extensive physical mobility that exposed them to and entailed interaction with multi-ethnic and multireligious contexts. Additionally, the study argues that despite the diversity of social status, backgrounds, circumstances or incentives for conversion that candidate converts displayed, a common element transcends the majority of their life-stories: the fact that before reaching the Christian institutions, they were already embedded in cross-faith and cross-cultural social networks. These networks, which often operated as agents of conversion, formed the wider framework within which the various catalysts-from straightforward coercion and poverty to intense cross-faith intimacy, physical mobility, identity crisis or the prospect of professional and status gain-were played out. The study draws mostly, but not exclusively, on material from the archive of the institution of the Casa dei Catecumeni and the church of San Giorgio in Venice, as well as on material from the Megalos Protopapas and the Latin Cathedral archival series in Corfu.

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  41. Μεγάλοι Πρωτοπαπάδες, b. 30, f. 1, c. 27r-v, GSAC.
  42. Μεγάλοι Πρωτοπαπάδες, b. 30, f. 1, c. 38r-v, GSAC.
  43. '[K]ράζοντάςµε ο υψηλότατος αυθέντης Γγενεράλης, και εροτόνταςµε αν θέλω να γενώ χριστιανοί του απεκρίθηκα πως επεθιµώ, και θέλω εκ ψυχής και καρδίας να βαπτιστώ απο την ανατολικήν εκκλησίαν, και να τελειώσω εις την χριστιανικήν πίστιν χάριτι χ[ριστ]ου, και έτζι µε έπεµψεν εδώ', Μεγάλοι Πρωτοπαπάδες, b. 30, f. 1, c. 38v, GSAC. 300 Her name must have probably been 'Esther', yet in the documents it is recorded as 'Sterina'. 301
  44. Μεγάλοι Πρωτοπαπάδες, b. 51, f. 7, c. 354r-v, GSAC.
  45. '[E]γώ είµαι εβραία, το ονοµάµου είναι στερίνα, θ[υγατέρα] του Μορδαχάη Μουστάκη Μακελάρι, και θέλω να γίνω χριστιανή ανατολική', Μεγάλοι Πρωτοπαπάδες, b. 51, f. 7, c. 354r, GSAC.
  46. Calimani, The Ghetto of Venice, 205-209, 222-224; Pullan, The Jews of Europe, 148-149; idem, 'Jewish Moneylending in Venice', 671. 358 Certain Jewish families continued nevertheless to play an important role in the Venetian commerce, see Salvatore Ciriacono, Olio ed ebrei nella Repubblica veneta del Settecento (Venezia: A spese della Deputazione, 1975), 23-34, 64-69.
  47. Gino Luzzatto, 'Sulla condizione economica degli ebrei veneziani nel secolo XVIII', La Rassegna Mensile di Israel 16 (1950): 161; Calimani, The Ghetto of Venice, 222-225; Pier Cesare Ioly Zorattini, Battesimi di fanciulli ebrei a Venezia nel Settecento (Venezia: Doretti, 1984), 21; Benjamin Ravid, 'The Venetian Government and the Jews', in The Jews of Early Modern Venice, ed. Davis and Ravid, 26-27. 360 Favero and Trivellato, 'Gli abitanti del ghetto di Venezia', 19.
  48. Favero and Trivellato, 'Gli abitanti del ghetto di Venezia', 20; Marino Berengo, 'Gli ebrei veneziani alla fine del Settecento', Italia Judaica 3 (1989): 23. 362
  49. Calimani, The Ghetto of Venice, 228-230, 238-244.
  50. Capitoli, ed ordini per il buon governo delle Pie Case de' Catecumeni di Venezia, 68-69.
  51. Pullan, The Jews of Europe, 162. See also Calabi, 'The 'City of the Jews'", 45.
  52. Capitoli, ed ordini per il buon governo delle Pie Case de' Catecumeni di Venezia, 47.
  53. Capitoli, ed ordini per il buon governo delle Pie Case de' Catecumeni di Venezia, 45-46. 391 Ibid., 47. 392 In the institution's statute there is a concrete provision permitting 'figliuoli e figliuole di casa a servir in questa città', see Ibid., 61. 393 Indicatively see Michael Mitterauer, 'Servants and Youth', Continuity and Change 5 (1990): 11-38;
  54. Dennis Romano, Housecraft and Statecraft. Domestic Service in Renaissance Venice, 1400-1600 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), xxiii-xxv, 99, 102-104, 129-132; Christopher C. Black, Early Modern Italy. A Social History (London, New York: Routledge, 2001), 96-97; Raffaella Sarti, 'Who are Servants? Defining Domestic Service in Western Europe (16th-21st Centuries)', in Proceedings of the 'Servant Project', ed. Suzy Pasleau and Isabelle Schopp with Rafaella Sarti, vol. 2 (Liege: Éditions de l'Univérsité de Liège, 2006), 3-59, esp. 3-11.
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  56. Daniela Lombardi and Flores Reggiani, 'Da assistita a serva. Circuiti di reclutamento delle serve attraverso le instituzioni assistenziali (Firenze-Milano, XVII-XVIII sec.)', in Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica "C. Datini" - Prato, La donna nell'economia, sec. XIII-XVIII, ed. Simonetta Cavaciocchi (Florence: Le Monnier, 1990), 301- 319;
  57. Sarti, 'Who are Servants?', 5; Romano, Housecraft and Statecraft, 193-222; Monica Chojnacka, Working Women of Early Modern Venice (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 121-136.
  58. Caffis, 'essendo stato [Pietro] della professione di barbiere'; 404 jewelers like Lorenzo olim Mordocheo, son of Abram from Smyrna, thirty-four years old, who in 1663 after his baptism 'andò via per lavorar di zogieler'; chair-maker apprentices, like Antonio olim Abram son of Isaac Montalto from Smyrna, ten years old, who in 1682 was consigned to Antonio Petrelli, his godfather and chair-maker, in San Marcuola 'ad imparar l'arte del caregher'; quite few tailors, like Nicolo Venturini olim David, son of Abram Semeia from Venice, eighteen years old, who in 1706 'parti di casa et andò à far sartor'; greengrocers like Nadal Bonaventura Colombo olim Daniel son of David Bendana, twelve years old from Split, who in 1709 'fù impiegato nell'arte dei frutaroli in bottega di miser Andrea Garibaldi'; 405 working in coffee- shops, like Sebastian Gasparo Lipomano olim Mir bar Abram, twenty-five years old from Etting in 'Germania', for whom it was agreed in 1745 to work as a 'Principale di Bottega da Caffé ed Aquavita'. 406 Relevant information about women, who as we will see were most commonly given in marriages, is really scarce. One of the few that we have refers to Marta olim Rosa who was sent away as a weaver apprentice. Marta was eight years old when she was brought with her sister at the institution in 1660 after their father had initially arrived there, and five years later, at the age of thirteen, the institution decided to send her to Bortollo Mozachi, a weaver in the quarter of San Geremia 'ad imparar la profesion del tesser'. 407 Beyond these quite common options for occupational engagement that the institution could offer, few Jewish converts were recruited as mercenaries in the Venetian infantry and light cavalry companies, often stationed in cities of the Veneto, like Salo, Bergamo and Palmanova, or in the Venetian navy, where they were also employed as sailors 408 -as we will see, by contrast, Muslims converts were much more often enrolled in the Venetian compagnie. In the 17th century, most Jewish converts who enrolled in mercenary companies 404 Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 46r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. For the relevance of barbers with medicine and the profession of baber-surgeon see David Gentilcore, Healers and Healing in Early Modern Italy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998); idem, 'Was There a "Popular Medicine" in Early Modern Europe?', Folklore 115 (2004): 151-166;
  59. Sandra Cavallo, Artisans of the Body in Early Modern Italy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007);
  60. Mary Lindemann, Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
  61. Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 53v, Registro dei Battesimi 1676-1693, c. 5r, Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 97r, 104v, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV; Libro … 1702-1718-G6, c. 47v, Catecumeni, AIRE. 406 Costituti 1744-1762, c. 7r, Sezione Antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 407 Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 53v, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 408 Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 29r, 56v, 76v, Registro dei Battesimi 1676-1693, c. 47v, 50v, 85r, 87v, Registro dei Neofiti 1734-1911, c. 79v, 110r, 113v, 118r, 126r, 132r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. For the first half of the 17th century see Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 5v, 17v, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 468 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 95r, 97r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. Niccolo Venturini olim David left the institution a month and a half later and 'andò a far sartor'. 469 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 97r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 470 Costituti 1744-1762, c. 34v, Sezione Antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 471 Costituti 1779-1836, c. 1v, Sezione Antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 472 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 133r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 473 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 135r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV; Libro … 1718-1725- G8, c. 8, Catecumeni, AIRE. 474 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 135v-136r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 475 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 134r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV.
  62. Nevertheless, in the institution's registers there are few cases of explicitly forced baptisms, that is of children's baptisms before the age of fourteen without their parents' consent, see Ioly Zorattini, Battesimi di fanciuli Ebrei; Benjamin Ravid, 'The Forced Baptisms of Jewish Minors in Early-Modern Venice', Italia 13-15 (2001): 259-301. The situation was much more different in Rome, see Marina Caffiero, Battesimi forzati. Storie di ebrei, cristiani e convertiti nella Roma dei papi (Roma: Viella, 2004), also recently published in English as Forced baptisms. Histories of Jews, Christians, and Converts in Papal Rome (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).
  63. Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 27r, 37r, 40v-41r, 48r-v, 63v, 64r, 65r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 478 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 100v, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 479 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 115v-116r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 480 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 122v, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 501 For the Jewish modernity in the Italian context see Francsesca Bregoli, 'Jewish Modernity in Eighteenth-Century Italy. A Historiographical Survey', Jahrbuch des Simon-Dubnow-Instituts 6 (2007): 67-78, esp. 73-74; Francesca Trivellato, The Familiarity of Strangers. . The Sephardic Diaspora, Livorno, and Cross- cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009);
  64. Francsesca Bregoli, '"Two Jews Walk into a Coffeehouse". The "Jewish Question", Utility, and Political Participation in Late Eighteenth-Century Livorno', Jewish History 24 (2010): 309-329; Francsesca Bregoli and Federica Francesconi, 'Tradition and Transformation in Eighteenth-Century Europe. Jewish Integration in Comparative Perspective'. In 'Jewish Integration in Comparative Perspective'. Special Issue, Jewish History 24 (2010): 235-246;
  65. Francesca Bregoli, Mediterranean Enlightenment. Livornese Jews, Tuscan Culture, and Eighteenth-Century Reform (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2014). 502
  66. Feiner, The Origins of Jewish Secularization, 95-99, 218-220.
  67. Deborah Hertz, 'Emancipation Through Intermarriage in Old Berlin', in Jewish Women in Historical Perspective, ed. Baskin, 198. 504 For the 18th century see Israel, European Jewry, 237-255.
  68. Todd M. Endelman, 'Gender and Conversion Revisited', in Gender and Jewish History, ed. Marion A. Kaplan and Deborah Dash Moore (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 175. 506
  69. Israel, European Jewry, 200. 507 Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 113r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV.
  70. Libro … 1725-1744-G9, c. 7v, 10v, Catecumeni, AIRE.
  71. Libro … 1718-1725, c. 3v, 31v, 32r, 33v, 34r, 35v, 37v, Catecumeni, AIRE; Registro dei Neofiti 1692-1734, c. 135r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV.
  72. Libro … 1725-1744, c. 2v-3v, Catecumeni, AIRE.
  73. Libro … 1725-1744, c. 98v, Catecumeni, AIRE. 512 Costituti 1744-1762, c. 136v-137v, Sezione Antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 513 After his baptism he became a 'ligator di libri', Costituti 1744-1762, c. 73v, Sezione Antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 514 Registro dei Neofiti 1734-1911, c. 121r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 515 Libro … 1725-1744-G9, c. 144v (1743), Catecumeni, AIRE.
  74. Sue Peabody, '"A Dangerous Zeal". Catholic Missions to Slaves in the French Antilles, 1635-1800', French Historical Studies 25, no. 1 (2002): 67-68; Mazur, 'Combating "Mohammedan Indecency"', 27. 596 In the relevant literature captives and slaves are often considered different categories, the first regarded as having an exchange value for their masters, while the latter as having a use value. It seems, though, that these were closely interlinked categories, and as Bono has argued, it was possible to distinguish between a captive and a slave only after a captive was ransomed and freed, see Salvatore Bono, 'Slave Histories and Memoirs in the Mediterranean World. A Study of the Sources (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries)', in Trade and Cultural Exchange in the Early Modern Mediterranean. Braudel's Maritime Legacy, ed. Maria Fusaro, Colin Heywood and Mohamed-Salah Omro (London, New York: I. B. Tauris Publishers, 2010), 99-100;
  75. Daniel Bernardo Hershenzon 'Early Modern Spain and the Creation of the Mediterranean. Captivity, Commerce, and Knowledge' (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2011), 25-33. 597 According to the contracts between Venice and other states, as for example the duchy of Brunswick- Lüneburg, providing the Venetian army with mercenaries, all Muslim captives were to be given up to the Venetians, see Setton, Venice, Austria, and the Turks, 293. 598 The Morlacchi were people living in the inland mountains of Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps. They mostly engaged in semi-nomadic pastoralism, and they were largely Christians of the Eastern Orthodox Churh, see Larry Wolff, Venice and the Slavs, 3, 6, 11. 599 Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 38v, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 600 Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 39r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 601 Registro dei Neofiti 1676-1693, c. 10v, 11r, 16r-v, 27r, 29v, 45r-v, 46r, 52v, 53r, 54v, 94r-v, 100v, as well as pages some without numbering, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 602 Registro dei Neofiti 1676-1693, c. 11r, 16v, 27r-v, 29v, 30r, 46v, 54v, 73v, 75r, 94r-v, 101r-v, 102r, 108r, as well as some pages without numbering, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV.
  76. Bosnia. 612 Zemonich (present-day Zemunik in Croatia), Clissa, Obrovazzo (present-day Obrovac in Croatia), Nadin (in present-day Croatia), Castel Nuovo (present-day Novigrad in Croatia), Scardona (present-day Skradin in Croatia), Cnin (present-day Knin in Croatia) and 608 Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 51r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. On women owning servants and slaves see Merry E. Wiesner, Women and Gender in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 132. The Widman family was among the first families that bought their way into nobility in 1646 as part of the exchange of money for title, and was actively involved in the war, see Setton, Venice, Austria, and the Turks, 138. 609 Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 56v, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 610 Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 32r, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 611 Registro dei Battesimi 1616-1676, c. 23r-v, Sezione antica, Catecumeni, ASPV. 612 Among the 202 converts that can be recognized as captives and whose place of origin is identifiable, 73 came from the Ottoman Eyalet of Bosnia and 7 from the Eyalet of Kanije, on the east of Bosnia. 645 Μεγάλοι Πρωτοπαπάδες, b. 12, c. 311v, 332r, b. 13, c. 495r, 765v, 841r, 913v, GSAC.
  77. Romano, Housecraft and Statecraft, p. 155, 164.
  78. Romano, Housecraft and Statecraft, 167.
  79. Μεγάλοι Πρωτοπαπάδες, b. 12, c. 48v, GSAC.
  80. 'Barcaroli' and 'pescatori', see Ενετική ∆ιοίκηση, Registro 1692, c. 18r-v, GSAC. 650 'Salineri', see Ενετική ∆ιοίκηση, Registro 1692, c. 21v-24v, GSAC. 651 There is no professional specialization at the suburb of San Rocco. Among the professions included in the censure of 1692 there are mentioned boari, beccheri, aquaroli, hortolari, callegheri, macinatori, fachini, formaseri, marangon, barbieri, see Ενετική ∆ιοίκηση, Registro 1692, c. 16r-17v, GSAC. 652
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