Development of an X-ray pixel detector with multi-port charge-coupled device for X-ray free-electron laser experiments (original) (raw)
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Pixel array detector for X-ray free electron laser experiments
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 2011
X-ray free electron lasers (XFELs) promise to revolutionize X-ray science with extremely high peak brilliances and femtosecond X-ray pulses. This will require novel detectors to fully realize the potential of these new sources. There are many current detector development projects aimed at the many challenges of meeting the XFEL requirements [1,2]. This paper describes a pixel array detector (PAD) that has been developed for the Coherent X-ray Imaging experiment at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) at the SLAC National Laboratory [3]. The detector features 14-bit in-pixel digitization; a 2-level in-pixel gain setting that can be used to make an arbitrary 2-D gain pattern that is adaptable to a particular experiment; the ability to handle instantaneous X-ray flux rates of 10 17 photons per second; and continuous frames rates in excess of 120 Hz. The detector uses direct detection of X-rays in a silicon diode. The charge produced by the diode is integrated in a pixilated application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) which digitizes collected holes with single X-ray photon capability. Each ASIC is 194  185 pixels, each pixel is 110 mm  110 mm on a side. Each pixel can detect up to 2500 X-rays per frame in low-gain mode, yet easily detects single photons at high-gain. Cooled, single-chip detectors have been built and meet all the required specifications. SLAC National Laboratory is engaged in constructing a tiled, multi-chip 1516  1516 pixel detector.
Charge-coupled device area x-ray detectors
Review of Scientific Instruments, 2002
Charge-coupled device ͑CCD͒ area x-ray detector technology is reviewed. CCD detectors consist of a serial chain of signal components, such as phosphors, fiber optics or lenses, image intensifiers and the CCD which serve to convert the x-ray energy to light or electron-hole pairs and to record the spatially resolved image. The various combinations of components that have been used to make CCD detectors are described and the properties of each of the critical components are discussed. Calibration and correction procedures required for accurate data collection are described. The review closes with a brief description of future directions for solid-state area x-ray detectors.
CCD sensors in synchrotron X-ray detectors
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 1988
The intense photon flux from advanced synchrotron light sources, such as the 7-GeV synchrotron being designed at Argonne, require integrating-type detectors. Charge-coupled devices (CCDs) are well suited as synchrotron X-ray detectors. When irradiated indirectly via a phosphor followed by reducing optics, diffraction patterns of 100 cm 2 can be imaged on a 2 cm 2 CCD. With a conversion efficiency of-1 CCD electron/X-ray photon, a peak saturation capacity of > 10 6 X-rays can be obtained. A programmable CCD controller operating at a clock frequency of 20 MHz has been developed. The readout rate is 5 x 106 pixels/s and the shift rate in the parallel registers is 106 lines/s. The test detector was evaluated in two experiments. In protein crystallography diffraction patterns have been obtained from a lysozyme crystal using a conventional rotating anode X-ray generator. Based on these results we expect to obtain at a synchrotron diffraction images at a rate of-1 frame/s or a complete 3-dimensional data set from a single crystal in-2 min. In electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS), the CCD was used in a parallel detection mode which is similar to the mode array detectors are used in dispersive EXAFS. With a beam current corresponding to 3 × 109 electron/s on the detector, a series of 64 spectra were recorded on the CCD in a continuous sequence without interruption due to readout. The frame-to-frame pixet signal fluctuations had o = 0.4% from which DQE = 0.4 was obtained, where the detector conversion efficiency was 2.6 CCD electrons/X-ray photon. These multiple frame series also showed the time-resolved modulation of the electron microscope optics by stray magnetic fields.
Characterization and data collection on a direct-coupled CCD X-ray detector
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 1994
A large-area, multi-module, CCD-based detector without intensification stages is being developed by our group for X-ray diffraction applications. Each module consists of a fiberoptic taper with a phosphor deposited on the large end and a large-format, scientific CCD bonded to the small end. A single module has been constructed to evaluate the performance of this type of detector. This module has an active area of 43 x43 mm 2, a point response function FWHM = 80 ~m, a dynamic range of > 20000: 1, and a high DQE. Using four parallel readout circuits, the CCD can be read out in 1.8 s. Crystallographic data collected using a rotating-anode source demonstrate the capability of this type of detector.
Calibration procedures for charge-coupled device x-ray detectors
Review of Scientific Instruments, 1999
Calibration procedures are described for use with electronic x-ray detectors, with an emphasis on detectors based on fiber-optically coupled charge-coupled devices. Methods are detailed for removing spurious events, pixel pedestals, dark-current, spatial distortion, and intensity response variations for both small-angle and wide-angle applications. The accuracy of the calibration procedures is discussed.
2010
CCDs are regularly used as imaging and spectroscopic devices on space telescopes at X-ray energies due to their high quantum efficiency and linearity across the energy range. The International X-ray Observatory's X-ray Grating Spectrometer will also look to make use of these devices across the energy band of 0.3 keV to 1 keV. At these energies, when photon counting, the charge generated in the silicon is close to the noise of the system. In order to be able to detect these low energy X-ray events, the system noise of the detector has to be minimised to have a sufficient signal-to-noise-ratio. By using an EM-CCD instead of a conventional CCD, any charge that is collected in the device can be multiplied before it is read out and as long as the EM-CCD is cool enough to adequately suppress the dark current, the signal-to-noise ratio of the device can be significantly increased, allowing soft X-ray events to be more easily detected. This paper will look into the use of EM-CCDs for the detection of low energy X-rays, in particular the effect that using these devices will have on the signal to noise ratio as well as any degradation in resolution and FWHM that may occur due to the additional shot noise on the signal caused by the charge packet amplification process.
A new family of pixel detectors for high frame rate X-ray applications
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 2010
We are developing a new family of hybrid, single photon counting X-ray detectors for very high frame rate applications. A dedicated readout chip was designed, to be used as building block for detectors up to 9 Mpixel and about 550 cm 2 area. It has an area of 19:3 Â 20:0 mm 2 and contains 256 Â 256 pixels of 75 Â 75 mm 2 , resulting in an active region of 19:2 Â 19:2 mm 2. Each pixel contains a 12 bit counter with double buffering for continuous image acquisition. Moreover, it allows a partial readout (4, 8 or 12 bits) with corresponding frame rates up to 24, 12 and 8 kHz. The chip is designed with Hardening By Design techniques [1], to obtain high radiation tolerance from a standard commercial 0:25 mm CMOS technology. The chip was recently received from fabrication and it is at present under test.
Journal of Instrumentation, 2009
The source characteristics of the European XFEL and the planned experimental facilities that are relevant for the X-ray detectors are presented, and the requirements for the 2dimensional X-ray Detectors are stated and explained. It is clear that, although these requirements will evolve with time, they demand new detector concepts to be developed. Three X-ray detector development projects have been initiated by the European XFEL, each using a conceptually different approach to meet the stringent requirements. The basic principles used in the projects are briefly presented.
High-sensitivity CCD-based X-ray detector
Journal of Synchrotron Radiation, 2001
The detector is designed for imaging measurements requiring relatively high sensitivity and high spatial resolution. The detector can discriminate single X-ray photons, yet has the wide dynamic range ($ 10 000 : 1) associated with integrating detectors. A GdO 2 S 2 phosphor screen converts the incoming X-ray image into an optical image. The optical image is coupled (without demagni®cation) to the CCD image sensor using a ®ber optic faceplate. The CCD (Philips Semiconductors) has an area of 4.9 Â 8.6 cm with 4000 Â 7000 12 mm pixels. A single 12 keV X-ray photon produces a signal of 100 e À . With 2 Â 2 pixel binning, the total noise per 24 mm pixel in a 100 s image is $ 30 e À , the detective quantum ef®ciency is > 0.6 at 1 X-ray photon per pixel, and the full image can be read out in < 4 s. The spatial resolution is 50 mm. The CCD readout system is fully computer-controlled, allowing¯exible operation in time-resolved experiments. The detector has been characterized using visible-light images, X-ray images and time-resolved muscle diffraction measurements.
Review of Scientific Instruments, 2007
High-resolution x-ray measurements were performed with a von Hamos-type bent crystal spectrometer using for the detection of the diffracted photons either a back-illuminated charge-coupled device ͑CCD͒ camera or a front-illuminated one. For each CCD the main x-ray emission lines ͑e.g., K␣, K, L␣, and L͒ of a variety of elements were measured in order to probe the performances of the two detectors between 1 and 18 keV. From the observed x-ray lines the linearity of the energy response, the noise level, the energy resolution, and the quantum efficiency ratio of the two CCDs were determined.