'Here comes the sun....' solar symbolism in Early Bronze Age Ireland (original) (raw)

2015, Archaeology Ireland 29(1), 26-33,

Abstract

This short article is an attempt to articulate some new ideas about the real nature and function of the gold objects that are the most commonly encountered in the earliest goldwork from Ireland and Britain—discs and lunulae.

Key takeaways

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  1. Gold discs and lunulae symbolize the sun, reflecting early Bronze Age cosmology in Ireland.
  2. 23 gold discs recorded in Ireland, with various decorative motifs representing solar phenomena.
  3. Lunulae, resembling crescent moons, number at least 80 in Ireland, serving as significant neck ornaments.
  4. Solar motifs appear on 350 out of 388 illustrated early Bronze Age Bowls, indicating widespread symbolism.
  5. The text explores connections between solar imagery and social practices in early Bronze Age cultures.

Figures (15)

The rediscovery of a gold lunula and a pair of gold discs amongst the contents of a safe stolen from a pharmacy in Strokestown, Co. Roscommon, in 2009 received widespread publicity at the time. The story was briefly described in a news piece for Archaeology Ireland and the original find-place in 1945 was revealed as Coggalbeg, Co. Roscommon, a few miles from Strokestown. It was noted that the discovery of a lunula and gold discs together was unusual and might have implications for the dating of both types of objects. Precise dating of Irish Bronze Age goldwork is difficult in any case, as there are so few datable associations or contexts to work with. Although we were able to locate the turf bank at Coggalbeg where the objects were found, there was no archaeological The discovery did, however, offer an opportunity to look at gold discs and to think about how they may have functioned and how they might relate to lunulae. The discs have long been called ‘sun-discs’ because they are made of gold and are obviously circular in form. Nevertheless, the discs take many different forms when their decorative and other features are considered: some are quite plain, others highly decorated; some are perforated at the centre while others are not; some are completely flat, while others are or were domed. Some

The rediscovery of a gold lunula and a pair of gold discs amongst the contents of a safe stolen from a pharmacy in Strokestown, Co. Roscommon, in 2009 received widespread publicity at the time. The story was briefly described in a news piece for Archaeology Ireland and the original find-place in 1945 was revealed as Coggalbeg, Co. Roscommon, a few miles from Strokestown. It was noted that the discovery of a lunula and gold discs together was unusual and might have implications for the dating of both types of objects. Precise dating of Irish Bronze Age goldwork is difficult in any case, as there are so few datable associations or contexts to work with. Although we were able to locate the turf bank at Coggalbeg where the objects were found, there was no archaeological The discovery did, however, offer an opportunity to look at gold discs and to think about how they may have functioned and how they might relate to lunulae. The discs have long been called ‘sun-discs’ because they are made of gold and are obviously circular in form. Nevertheless, the discs take many different forms when their decorative and other features are considered: some are quite plain, others highly decorated; some are perforated at the centre while others are not; some are completely flat, while others are or were domed. Some

Below: PI. 3—Elaborate discs with crosses, zigzags, dotting, concentric rings, rays and whirligig in various combinations. Clockwise from top left: Tedavnet, Co. Monaghan (one of a pair); Ireland W266 (one of a pair); button cover, the Knowes of Trotty, Orkney, Scotland (one of four); button cover, Sparrograda (Ballydehob), Co. Cork. Not to scale (©NMI and National Museum of Scotland).

Below: PI. 3—Elaborate discs with crosses, zigzags, dotting, concentric rings, rays and whirligig in various combinations. Clockwise from top left: Tedavnet, Co. Monaghan (one of a pair); Ireland W266 (one of a pair); button cover, the Knowes of Trotty, Orkney, Scotland (one of four); button cover, Sparrograda (Ballydehob), Co. Cork. Not to scale (©NMI and National Museum of Scotland).

sun in ordinary everyday conditions varies according to the time of day. It is almost impossible to look at a very bright midday sun, as the eyes react against it. It is possible, however, to look at the rising or setting sun for a short period of time without strain or damage. For example, watching the sun going down over water produces a number of visual and colour effects that have been observed for millennia. The way we see the sun can vary, depending on atmospheric conditions and the presence or absence of clouds, rain or mist. Sunlight filtered through trees also produces similar effects.

sun in ordinary everyday conditions varies according to the time of day. It is almost impossible to look at a very bright midday sun, as the eyes react against it. It is possible, however, to look at the rising or setting sun for a short period of time without strain or damage. For example, watching the sun going down over water produces a number of visual and colour effects that have been observed for millennia. The way we see the sun can vary, depending on atmospheric conditions and the presence or absence of clouds, rain or mist. Sunlight filtered through trees also produces similar effects.

In the absence of any direct or contextual archaeological evidence for the identification of gold discs as sun symbols, this interpretation provides some real astronomical associations that strengthen the case. This does not of itself tell us how these objects functioned, or how they were regarded in early Bronze Age society in Ireland or in the wider European milieu. What is clear is that the use of sun symbols is much more widespread and is not confined to objects made of gold. The same range of solar motifs can be seen on the bases of many ceramic Bowls (i.e. Food Vessel Bowls) of the early Bronze Age. The easiest way to gain an overview of just how many pots are decorated in this way is to leaf through O Riorddin and Waddell’s invaluable corpus of Irish Bronze Age Bowls and Vases (1993). In this corpus 388 Bowls are illustrated, of which c. 350

In the absence of any direct or contextual archaeological evidence for the identification of gold discs as sun symbols, this interpretation provides some real astronomical associations that strengthen the case. This does not of itself tell us how these objects functioned, or how they were regarded in early Bronze Age society in Ireland or in the wider European milieu. What is clear is that the use of sun symbols is much more widespread and is not confined to objects made of gold. The same range of solar motifs can be seen on the bases of many ceramic Bowls (i.e. Food Vessel Bowls) of the early Bronze Age. The easiest way to gain an overview of just how many pots are decorated in this way is to leaf through O Riorddin and Waddell’s invaluable corpus of Irish Bronze Age Bowls and Vases (1993). In this corpus 388 Bowls are illustrated, of which c. 350

may have influenced the way solar imagery is represented, such as sun pillars, sun dogs, crepuscular rays, halos and circumzenithal arcs (Pl. 4). We must presume that in prehistoric times, while there was close observation and knowledge of the sun’s daily and seasonal movements, the sun itself was viewed directly for very short periods, as there were no protective filters available. It should therefore be safe to assume that, if gold discs are to be understood as sun symbols, the motifs used, singly or in combination, should portray the sun as it was seen through normal everyday observations. In this way the use of a cross can be understood as representing a sun where the rays appear to extend from the centre to form four arms. This is frequently seen at sunrise and sunset. On some discs the arms of the cross are laddered, e.g. the discs from Rappa Castle, Co. Mayo, or Kilmuckridge, Co. Wexford, perhaps mimicking the effect of the reflection of the setting sun on water (Pls 2 and 4). On other occasions the sun may appear to have jagged, broken edges, which might be represented by the zigzag motifs that are also a common feature of the decoration of sun-discs. The use of angled rays in a circle, such as those seen on one of the discs from the Knowes of Trotty, Scotland, may represent the idea of the sun rolling or ‘wheeling’ across the sky. Undecorated discs may be manifestations of the sun as a golden disc high in the sky, while concentric rings and dots may suggest an interpretation of the sun’s corona, which can be seen with the naked eye during an event such as an annular solar eclipse where the moon blocks the centre of the sun, leaving a bright ring or annulus visible. A ring around the sun can also be seen in everyday situations. There are many other observable manifestations of the sun that

may have influenced the way solar imagery is represented, such as sun pillars, sun dogs, crepuscular rays, halos and circumzenithal arcs (Pl. 4). We must presume that in prehistoric times, while there was close observation and knowledge of the sun’s daily and seasonal movements, the sun itself was viewed directly for very short periods, as there were no protective filters available. It should therefore be safe to assume that, if gold discs are to be understood as sun symbols, the motifs used, singly or in combination, should portray the sun as it was seen through normal everyday observations. In this way the use of a cross can be understood as representing a sun where the rays appear to extend from the centre to form four arms. This is frequently seen at sunrise and sunset. On some discs the arms of the cross are laddered, e.g. the discs from Rappa Castle, Co. Mayo, or Kilmuckridge, Co. Wexford, perhaps mimicking the effect of the reflection of the setting sun on water (Pls 2 and 4). On other occasions the sun may appear to have jagged, broken edges, which might be represented by the zigzag motifs that are also a common feature of the decoration of sun-discs. The use of angled rays in a circle, such as those seen on one of the discs from the Knowes of Trotty, Scotland, may represent the idea of the sun rolling or ‘wheeling’ across the sky. Undecorated discs may be manifestations of the sun as a golden disc high in the sky, while concentric rings and dots may suggest an interpretation of the sun’s corona, which can be seen with the naked eye during an event such as an annular solar eclipse where the moon blocks the centre of the sun, leaving a bright ring or annulus visible. A ring around the sun can also be seen in everyday situations. There are many other observable manifestations of the sun that

bordering the base. This use of space when viewed from above expands the area available in which to represent fully the solar image. It is also notable, as far as the decoration of vessel bases is concerned, that this is a phenomenon chiefly associated with Bowls, as very few Vases show evidence of basal decoration. Because of their rounded body forms, unlike the more angular Vases, Bowls lend themselves more readily to the

bordering the base. This use of space when viewed from above expands the area available in which to represent fully the solar image. It is also notable, as far as the decoration of vessel bases is concerned, that this is a phenomenon chiefly associated with Bowls, as very few Vases show evidence of basal decoration. Because of their rounded body forms, unlike the more angular Vases, Bowls lend themselves more readily to the

Pairs of gold discs are also known from Oviedo in the north of Spain (Pl. 8) and from Cabeceiras de Basto (Pl. 9) in northern Portugal, where a lunula was also found. A gold diadem from Caravaca de la Cruz (Murcia) bears a gold disc with concentric

Pairs of gold discs are also known from Oviedo in the north of Spain (Pl. 8) and from Cabeceiras de Basto (Pl. 9) in northern Portugal, where a lunula was also found. A gold diadem from Caravaca de la Cruz (Murcia) bears a gold disc with concentric

Solar imagery is also a very important part of the repertoire of motifs used in Scandinavian rock art. The solar disc is represented in a variety of ways, including circles with crosses, wheeled circles and blank discs. One or more sun discs may be part of the same picture, and where two occur it seems likely that they represent the day and the night sun (Pl. 13). More than two sun symbols may depict the movement of the sun on its daily journey from day to night and from east to west. Numerous Scandinavian scholars have contributed to our understanding of these images. In the earliest depictions, c. 1700 BC, the sun is Beakers in the Csepel (Hungary) group show some remarkable similarities to Iberian vessels, especially in the way the bases are decorated. These vessels are also interpreted as representing sun symbols. In a very interesting paper, Enrédi and Pasztor (2006) have also considered these vessels from an inverted vertical position and suggest that the decorative motifs can be read in a new way from this perspective. Reading the decoration on Irish Bowls from the base rather than the side or the top completely changes one’s perspective to such a degree that these pots may be considered solar bowls, as the imagery is so powerful. In relation to Danish wooden drinking cups with sun-star motifs outlined in tin nails on their bases, such as those from Guldhgj, Kristian Kristiansen (2011, 153) has remarked that, when the cups are raised to the mouth, the sun would be seen to rise metaphorically as the image became visible. The same may well be true of the Irish Bowls. It should also be noted that the bases of many Miniature Vessels (accessory cups) can be similarly interpreted. Kavanagh (1977) illustrates several examples, such as those from Cushendall, Co. Antrim, Dunleckney (Bagnelstown), Co. Carlow, Moyhora, Co. Kilkenny (Pl. 10), and Broughderg, Co. Tyrone.

Solar imagery is also a very important part of the repertoire of motifs used in Scandinavian rock art. The solar disc is represented in a variety of ways, including circles with crosses, wheeled circles and blank discs. One or more sun discs may be part of the same picture, and where two occur it seems likely that they represent the day and the night sun (Pl. 13). More than two sun symbols may depict the movement of the sun on its daily journey from day to night and from east to west. Numerous Scandinavian scholars have contributed to our understanding of these images. In the earliest depictions, c. 1700 BC, the sun is Beakers in the Csepel (Hungary) group show some remarkable similarities to Iberian vessels, especially in the way the bases are decorated. These vessels are also interpreted as representing sun symbols. In a very interesting paper, Enrédi and Pasztor (2006) have also considered these vessels from an inverted vertical position and suggest that the decorative motifs can be read in a new way from this perspective. Reading the decoration on Irish Bowls from the base rather than the side or the top completely changes one’s perspective to such a degree that these pots may be considered solar bowls, as the imagery is so powerful. In relation to Danish wooden drinking cups with sun-star motifs outlined in tin nails on their bases, such as those from Guldhgj, Kristian Kristiansen (2011, 153) has remarked that, when the cups are raised to the mouth, the sun would be seen to rise metaphorically as the image became visible. The same may well be true of the Irish Bowls. It should also be noted that the bases of many Miniature Vessels (accessory cups) can be similarly interpreted. Kavanagh (1977) illustrates several examples, such as those from Cushendall, Co. Antrim, Dunleckney (Bagnelstown), Co. Carlow, Moyhora, Co. Kilkenny (Pl. 10), and Broughderg, Co. Tyrone.

carried on a boat so that it can complete its diurnal and nocturnal circuit of the earth and the underworld. The story becomes more complicated with the introduction of other elements throughout the Scandinavian Bronze Age and into the Iron Age. These include horses, fish, the Divine Twins who protect the sun, and individuals called ‘adorants’, who appear to worship the sun and carry aloft objects incorporating solar discs. Flemming Kaul (1998) has shown how the sun’s daily journey is also depicted on Danish Bronze Age razors. A horse pulls the Trundholm disc on a carriage and can be interpreted as a sculptural representation of the sun’s journey, with the golden face representing daytime and the bronze face representing night-time. The surface of the bronze disc found with a hoard of weapons at Nebra in Germany and dated to c. 1600 BC bears a complex imagery representing the sun, moon, stars, horizons and a solar boat (Pl. 11a). Gold sheet is used to highlight the various astronomical features on the disc. Kristiansen (2012) has also written about the background of Scandinavian solar myths, tracing their origin back to Indo-European sources which spread from the east to the west in the early third millennium. If these myths reached northern Europe at the beginning of the Scandinavian Bronze Age c. 1700 BC, can we also suggest that a version of the story of the sun came to Ireland around the time when metal-working was introduced here? Gold discs, jet buttons and

carried on a boat so that it can complete its diurnal and nocturnal circuit of the earth and the underworld. The story becomes more complicated with the introduction of other elements throughout the Scandinavian Bronze Age and into the Iron Age. These include horses, fish, the Divine Twins who protect the sun, and individuals called ‘adorants’, who appear to worship the sun and carry aloft objects incorporating solar discs. Flemming Kaul (1998) has shown how the sun’s daily journey is also depicted on Danish Bronze Age razors. A horse pulls the Trundholm disc on a carriage and can be interpreted as a sculptural representation of the sun’s journey, with the golden face representing daytime and the bronze face representing night-time. The surface of the bronze disc found with a hoard of weapons at Nebra in Germany and dated to c. 1600 BC bears a complex imagery representing the sun, moon, stars, horizons and a solar boat (Pl. 11a). Gold sheet is used to highlight the various astronomical features on the disc. Kristiansen (2012) has also written about the background of Scandinavian solar myths, tracing their origin back to Indo-European sources which spread from the east to the west in the early third millennium. If these myths reached northern Europe at the beginning of the Scandinavian Bronze Age c. 1700 BC, can we also suggest that a version of the story of the sun came to Ireland around the time when metal-working was introduced here? Gold discs, jet buttons and

Scandinavian solar boats the prow and stern are often very underdeveloped, and only the later examples show elaborate treatment of these features, with bird-head or horse-head terminals. Very often rock art boats are depicted with numerous short strokes, straight or angled, believed to represent oars or oarsmen. Groups of short strokes are also one of the most common motifs on both the border and panel ornament on Irish Iunulae (Pls 11b and 12). The gold boat on the Nebra disc is outlined with short strokes incised on the bronze surface. The boat itself has two concentric lines running along its length, and this motif of lines following the curvature of the object is one that can be seen on almost all lunulae, including those from Skovs-Hojrup and Cabeceiras de Basto. reflect an element of the twinning of images that is seen in Scandinavian rock art.

Scandinavian solar boats the prow and stern are often very underdeveloped, and only the later examples show elaborate treatment of these features, with bird-head or horse-head terminals. Very often rock art boats are depicted with numerous short strokes, straight or angled, believed to represent oars or oarsmen. Groups of short strokes are also one of the most common motifs on both the border and panel ornament on Irish Iunulae (Pls 11b and 12). The gold boat on the Nebra disc is outlined with short strokes incised on the bronze surface. The boat itself has two concentric lines running along its length, and this motif of lines following the curvature of the object is one that can be seen on almost all lunulae, including those from Skovs-Hojrup and Cabeceiras de Basto. reflect an element of the twinning of images that is seen in Scandinavian rock art.

collar, and this may be interpreted as an expression of the prow and stern of the solar boat. Assuming that they were intended to be worn as upper body ornaments, lunulae may have been worn around the neck with the terminals tied at the back, or possibly may have been suspended on the chest and secured via ties across the back of the neck. Most lunulae have flat spatulate terminals that are expansions of the ends of the original ingot from which the lunula was hammered up. We see them mostly in the same plane as the collar, but this seems to be the result of manipulation of the terminals after discovery. Some early accounts of discovery suggest that the terminals were at right angles to the representations of boats and sun symbols seen on pottery vessels from Los Millares (Guerrero Ayuso 2010). The interior surface of one vessel is incised with a partial representation of a log boat, with two rows of short strokes on either side taken to be the oars or the rowers, just as seen on later Scandinavian rock art. Another shallow dish is decorated with two sun symbols and two stylised boats, reduced to a shallow curved line with rows of short strokes (Pl. 7). Both sun symbols are positioned close to each boat, perhaps an_ early interpretation of the day and night sun. The most significant point in terms of how Iberia, Ireland and Scandinavia relate to one another as regards sun symbols juxtaposed with solar boats (or discs and lunulae) is that the Los Millares depictions are earlier in date than the Scandinavian depictions. Given the accepted spread of Beaker pottery and cultural influences from Iberia throughout Europe, this provides a route whereby these ideas may have been transmitted along the Atlantic route, reaching Ireland perhaps as early as 2400 BC.

collar, and this may be interpreted as an expression of the prow and stern of the solar boat. Assuming that they were intended to be worn as upper body ornaments, lunulae may have been worn around the neck with the terminals tied at the back, or possibly may have been suspended on the chest and secured via ties across the back of the neck. Most lunulae have flat spatulate terminals that are expansions of the ends of the original ingot from which the lunula was hammered up. We see them mostly in the same plane as the collar, but this seems to be the result of manipulation of the terminals after discovery. Some early accounts of discovery suggest that the terminals were at right angles to the representations of boats and sun symbols seen on pottery vessels from Los Millares (Guerrero Ayuso 2010). The interior surface of one vessel is incised with a partial representation of a log boat, with two rows of short strokes on either side taken to be the oars or the rowers, just as seen on later Scandinavian rock art. Another shallow dish is decorated with two sun symbols and two stylised boats, reduced to a shallow curved line with rows of short strokes (Pl. 7). Both sun symbols are positioned close to each boat, perhaps an_ early interpretation of the day and night sun. The most significant point in terms of how Iberia, Ireland and Scandinavia relate to one another as regards sun symbols juxtaposed with solar boats (or discs and lunulae) is that the Los Millares depictions are earlier in date than the Scandinavian depictions. Given the accepted spread of Beaker pottery and cultural influences from Iberia throughout Europe, this provides a route whereby these ideas may have been transmitted along the Atlantic route, reaching Ireland perhaps as early as 2400 BC.

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References (10)

  1. Enrődi, A. and Pásztor, E. 2006 Symbolism and traditions in the society of the Bell Beaker-Csepel group. Archaeologiai Értesít 131, 7-25.
  2. Garrido-Pena, R. 2000 El campaniforme en la Meseta Central de la Península Ibérica (c. 2500-2000 AC.) BAR International Series 892. Oxford.
  3. Guerrero Ayuso, V.M. 2010 Barcos calcolíticos (c. 2500/2000 BC) del Mediterráneo occidental. Pyrenae 2 (41), 29-48.
  4. Harrison, R.J. 1977 The Bell Beaker cultures of Spain and Portugal. Cambridge, Mass.
  5. Kaul, F. 1998 Ships on bronzes: a study in Bronze Age religion. Copenhagen.
  6. Kavanagh, R. 1977 Pygmy cups in Ireland. Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 107, 61-95.
  7. Kristiansen, K. 2011 Bridging India and Scandinavia: institutional transmission and elite conquest during the Bronze Age. In T.C. Wilkinson et al. (eds), Interweaving worlds-systemic interactions in Eurasia, 7th to 1st millennia BC, 243-65. Oxford.
  8. Kristiansen, K. 2012 Rock art and religion- the sun journey in Indo-European mythology and Bronze Age rock art. Adoranten (2012), 69-86.
  9. Ó Ríordáin, B. and Waddell, J. 1993 The funerary Bowls and Vases of the Irish Bronze Age. Galway.
  10. Taylor, J.J. 1970 Lunulae reconsidered. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 36, 38-81.

FAQs

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What explains the relationship between gold discs and solar symbolism in Early Bronze Age?add

The study reveals that gold discs, decorated with motifs like concentric circles and zigzags, likely represent varied solar phenomena. This connection suggests a widespread cultural reverence for the sun, evident from artifacts like the gold lunula.

How does the decoration of lunulae reflect solar imagery?add

Lunulae feature decorative elements that appear to resemble solar boats, with patterns suggesting oars and boats. This motif aligns with other Bronze Age representations, indicating a broader community understanding of solar symbolism across artifacts.

When were the earliest examples of solar-disc motifs dated in Ireland?add

The earliest gold discs are dated to around 2400 BC, indicating the inception of solar cult imagery in Ireland. This tradition appears to have persisted, influencing other objects such as Bowls well into the Bronze Age.

How were gold discs utilized in Early Bronze Age Irish society?add

While their exact use remains uncertain, the research suggests that gold discs could have been ornamental, possibly attached to garments or accessories. Their significance likely extended into the realm of solar cults within the society.

What unique features differentiate the types of lunulae identified by Joan Taylor?add

Joan Taylor identified three types of lunulae: Unaccomplished, Classical, and Provincial, each differing in design sophistication. Particularly, Classical lunulae showcase advanced mirror-imaging techniques, reflecting high craftsmanship observed in contemporary artifacts.