Finding the Knowledge of God: On the Formative Role of Imitation in Proverbs 1−9 (original) (raw)

Abstract

The book of Proverbs is the preeminent work of wisdom in the biblical canon, loved and studied by people of all walks and types. Although some find interest in the mundane and universal tone it appears to espouse, recent scholarship has sought to unravel the theological and philosophical qualities that underlie its aphoristic content. As the introduction and interpretive key for this book, Proverbs 1−9 provides a cohesive wisdom program to a proverbial son for guidance throughout his life. Within this complex literary tapestry, the proverbial father teaches the son how to become and be one of the wise. The goal of wisdom, however, is not merely for mundane success or practical skills. Rather, the father provides fifteen lessons that point to Yhwh. For the son to become wise, he must grow in his knowledge of God, which is achieved primarily through becoming like God in his character, behavior, and desires. Although some scholars over the past few decades have rejected or criticized the presence and role of imitatio Dei (imitation of God) in the Hebrew Bible, this project endeavors to show that God and his ways are at the heart of the wisdom program in Proverbs 1−9. As the proverbial father teaches, the proverbial son must first look to worthy examples such as his parents, teachers, and ideal figures throughout biblical history. The son is also instructed to follow and emulate the enigmatic figure of Wisdom, who is his exalted teacher and representative of Yhwh. By following these righteous examples, the son will ascend the wisdom trajectory, which begins and ends in God. While there are many important instructions for the son throughout Proverbs 1−9, the center and goal for the whole wisdom program is ultimately that the son will imitate God by walking in his ways. If he grows in the likeness of God, he will also grow in the knowledge of God. As the father teaches in Proverbs 1−9, this is the way of wisdom. In other words, the proverbial son must learn to follow the well-worn path of imitatio Dei.

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References (773)

Fromm, You Shall Be as Gods, 67; Buber, Israel and the World, 67; Marmorstein, The Doctrine of Merits in Old Rabbinical Literature, 202; Abrahams, Studies in Pharisaism, 157.
E. J. Tinsley, Imitation of God in Christ: An Essay on the Biblical Basis of Christian Spirituality (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960);
Don Cupitt, "God and Morality: Duty and Discernment, 6," Theology 76.637 (1973): 356-64. Cupitt is more concerned in this article with moral philosophy generally than OT ethics. He proposes "imitation" and "response" as the primary paradigmatic themes (357). Lindars focuses on the imitation aspect of the article, though Cupitt does not provide extensive coverage on the topic. Cupitt also acknowledges difficulties with the idea of imitatio Dei but only provides one example, apatheia (358).
Barnabas Lindars, "Imitation of God and Imitation of Christ: Duty and Discernment," Theology 76.638 (1973): 396. 174
Lindars, "Imitation of God and Imitation of Christ," 400.
Lindars, "Imitation of God and Imitation of Christ," 399.
Lindars, "Imitation of God and Imitation of Christ," 400.
Keefer, The Book of Proverbs and Virtue Ethics, 178; Zoltán S. Schwáb, Toward an Interpretation of the Book of Proverbs: Selfishness and Secularity Reconsidered, JTISup 7 (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2013), 146;
Eberhard Schockenhoff, "The Theological Virtue of Charity (IIa IIae, Qq. 23-46)," in The Ethics of Aquinas, ed.
Stephen J. Pope (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2002), 247.
Keefer, The Book of Proverbs and Virtue Ethics, 206.
Keefer, The Book of Proverbs and Virtue Ethics, 61-64.
Arthur J. Keefer, Proverbs 1-9 as an Introduction to the Book of Proverbs (London: T&T Clark, 2020),
Keefer, Proverbs 1-9 as an Introduction to the Book of Proverbs, 100-102.
Keefer, Proverbs 1-9 as an Introduction to the Book of Proverbs, 44.
Keefer, Proverbs 1-9 as an Introduction to the Book of Proverbs, 106.
Keefer, Proverbs 1-9 as an Introduction to the Book of Proverbs, 156-61.
While Skehan's contribution is certainly intriguing, his reasoning for division and versification for the "columns" is highly questionable. This is perhaps why his macro-structure has not been more broadly accepted. 42 With little explanation, he appears to pick verses and move them around based loosely on topic, literary markers, and perhaps most importantly verse numbers to 41 The pattern provided by Skehan was fortuitously discovered after the schema indicated in this study was independently developed. While the similarities give credibility to the pattern generally, the differences illuminate many important and intrinsic contributions of this study. See P. Skehan, Studies in Israelite Poetry and Wisdom, CBQMS 1 (Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1971), 9-14, 15-26, 27-45. 42 Skehan also developed numerical values for the whole of Proverbs, building upon the work of prior observers. In Gematria, his values may allude to several biblical names, including Solomon. These observations are more likely than his view on versification in Prov 1-9, though both are uncertain (Skehan, Studies in Israelite Poetry and Wisdom, 25). for me but I will not answer" (1:28). 89 As seen here, Wisdom is not just a personification of an abstract concept. The will of Wisdom implies a strong anthropomorphic response reflective of Yhwh. 90
In Mic 3:4, a similar phrase is expressed by Yhwh against the rulers of Israel. Likewise, God's refusal to answer Israel was prophesied by Samuel when the people "rejected" ‫)מאס(‬ God as their king (1 Sam 8:7, 18). The call-rejection motif between God and humans is a powerful and prominent refrain throughout the HB. 91 Yet, the language of calling on God is typical of a prayer for rescue or salvation. Isaiah prophesies, "Then you will call and Yhwh will answer … Yhwh will lead ‫)נחה(‬ you continually" (Isa 58:9, 11). His prophecy is a gracious reversal of the wicked rejection from earlier generations. Likewise, it demonstrates the intimacy and personal guidance from Yhwh, a reality rooted in Israel's earliest days as a people under the covenant (cf. Exod 13:21, 15:13, 33:14; Deut 32:12). 92 In many places, God's response is given, though conditioned towards the righteous, to those who trust in him and walk in his way. But, here in Prov 1:28, Wisdom will not grant an answer to the fool. 93 Rather they will suffer the consequences of their prior rejection (1:24-27). This is the exact opposite of Ps 50:15, where Yhwh says, "Call upon me in the day of trouble; I will deliver you" (cf. Ps 11:17, 17:6, 18:6, 20:9, 40:1).
Cf. Hos 9:17, "My God will reject ‫)מאס(‬ them because they did not listen to him."
As Whybray states, "To choose Wisdom is synonymous with choosing obedience to Yahweh." Similarly, Waltke says, "Submission to Wisdom is equated with submission to God." Plöger, however, prefers to see Wisdom as a prophet with a special word from Yhwh, creating a level of separation. See Whybray, Composition of the Book of Proverbs, 39; Plöger, Spruche Salomos (Proverbia), 20; Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 210. 91 Schipper connects several phrases from Wisdom to the prophetic tradition for Israel's rejection of the "divine will," also noting the overlaying relationship between Yhwh and Wisdom. See Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 94-96; Plöger, Spruche Salomos (Proverbia), 19.
See Lesson 12 and Appendix A: Exodus and God's Leading in His Way.
Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), I:209. 112 The nominal phrase ‫יהוה‬ ‫יראת‬ occurs twenty-two times (Isa 11:1, 3, 33:6; Ps 19:10, 34:12, 111:10; Prov 1:7, 29, 2:5, 8:13, 9:10, 10:27, 14:26, 27, 15:16, 33, 16:6, 19:23, 22:4, 23:17; 2 Chron 19:9). The verbal phrase ‫ירא‬ ‫יהוה‬ occurs forty-eight times (Exod 9:30, 14:31; Deut 6:2, 13, 24, 8:6, 10:12, 20, 13:5, 14:23, 17:19, 28:58, 31:12, 13; Josh 4:24, 24:14; 1 Sam 12:14, 18, 24; 2 Sam 6:9; 1 Kgs 18:3, 12; 2 Kgs 4:1, 17:25, 28, 32, 33, 34, 36, 39, 41; Isa 59:19; Jer 5:22, 24, 26:19; Hos 10:3; Jon 1:16; Hag 1:12; Mal 3:5; Ps 33:8, 34:10, 96:4, 102:16, 112:1; Job 1:9; Prov 3:7, 24:21; 1 Chron 16:25). Additionally, the nominal or verbal phrase with "God" substituted occurs thirty- three times (Gen 20:11, 22:12, 42:18; Exod 1:17, 21, 18:21; Lev 19:14, 32, 25:17, 36, 43; Deut 4:10, 25:18; 2 Sam 23:3; Ps 55:19, 66:16, 67:7, 89:7; Job 1:1, 8, 2:3, 4:6, 15:4; Eccl 3:14, 5:7, 7:18, 8:12, 13, 12:13; Neh 5:9, 15, 7:22;
Chron 26:5).
Tanner et al. rightly understand the close connection this psalm has with Prov 1-9. They define "fear of Yhwh" as, "The proper attitude of one with whom God has established a right relationship. … Those who gathered for worship did so not only to experience the divine presence and blessings, but to be schooled by elders and fellow community members." Furthermore, they see a strong connection with the character of God conveyed in the psalm. See Nancy L. DeClaissé-Walford, Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner, The Book of Psalms, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 326-27;
Brown, "Come, O Children," 85-102. 114 See Longman, The Fear of the Lord Is Wisdom, 12-20.
DeClaissé-Walford, Jacobson, and Tanner, Book of Psalms, 327.
Trible, "Wisdom Builds a Poem," 515; William McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach, OTL (London: SCM, 1970), 275.
See Moss, "Wisdom as Parental Teaching in Proverbs 1-9," 433. implores the son in 3:1 to not "forget" ‫)שכח(‬ his torah or "commands" ‫.)מצות(‬ 230 Together, the lexemes find a strong basis in Deuteronomy. 231 This coordination is especially important for Lesson 3 because it establishes the conceptual framework for the teacher's intent. Whybray states, "The contents of this teaching are however wholly concerned with the pupil's relationship with Yahweh." 232 In Deuteronomy, Yhwh is the teacher of Israel (cf. Ps 25:4-5, 86:11, 119:66). 233 Moses was the intermediary merely delivering God's teaching. 234 Likewise, it has been observed that "forgetting" is not a passive or accidental event, which is contrasted with difficulty because it does not fit into the type of faith exhibited in the historical and prophetic literatures. In it there is no explicit reference to or development of the doctrine of history, election, or covenant." Toombs contended instead, "The Law, then, takes its religious significance, not from its content, but from its context; from the fact that it originated in, and was itself an integral part of the act of God by which he worked a deliverance for his people. … Wisdom, like the Law, was hypostatized and regarded as the preexistent instrument of God in the creation of the world. In estimating the theological significance of the Law, it has been found necessary to look beyond both the specific commandments which make up the legal codes and the metaphysical glorification of the place of Torah in God's universal plan, and to focus attention on the context in which the Law was given. It is thus a priori probable that the theological meaning of wisdom will be found in the process by which wisdom comes to men." See G. E. Wright, God Who Acts: Biblical Theology as Recital, SBT 8 (London: SCM, 1952), 103; Lawrence E. Toombs, "O.T. Theology and the Wisdom Literature," JBR 23.3 (1955): 193-96;
Graeme Goldsworthy, "Wisdom and Its Literature in Biblical-Theological Context," SBJT 15.3 (2011): 42-55.
Fox claims, "Torah in Proverbs does not refer to law or legally enforceable ordinances." In contrast, Loader rightly rejects Fox's implications, "… that does not deny the religious impact of its use." Whether or not "proverbs" or "instructions" were enforceable is unknown, though improbable. Yet, if the teacher's reference point for his torah was the Torah, then they could in a sense be obligatory according to Fox's notion. The proverbial torah is presented as fatherly instruction rather than judicial absolutes, which Walton and Walton claim is true of the Torah as well. See Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 142; Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 146-47; Walton and Walton, Lost World of the Torah, 5-6, 37-45.
See Overland, "Did the Sage Draw from the Shema?"; McKane, Proverbs, 291; Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 125-26.
Whybray, Composition of the Book of Proverbs, 18; J. H. Potgieter, "The (Poetic) Rhetoric of Wisdom in Proverbs 3:1-12," HvTSt 58.4 (2002): 1367.
J. W. McKay, "Man's Love for God in Deuteronomy and The Father/Teacher -Son/Pupil Relationship," VT 22.4 (1972): 435.
Potgieter, similar to Whybray, remarks, "The content of the exhortation [3:1-4] is to follow in the footsteps of the wise father, to enter into a specific mode of existence, a way of life that has been proven to provide success and prosperity. The father is portrayed as a Moses-like figure giving teaching and commands." See Potgieter, "The (Poetic) Rhetoric of Wisdom in Proverbs 3:1-12," 1368; R. N. Whybray, Proverbs: Based on the Revised Standard Version, NCBC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 59.
Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 238; Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 142.
Estes, Hear, My Son, 84-85.
Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 154.
See Williams and Beckman, Williams' Hebrew Syntax, 97-98; Bruce K. Waltke and M. O'Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 196-97. 258 The phrase "in all his ways" is commonly coupled with "walk" in Deuteronomy and Joshua regarding Yhwh's commands (Deut 5:33, 10:12, 11:22; Josh 2:22, 22:5; cf. 1 Kgs 8:58; Jer 7:23; Ps 145:17). Weeks expounds on the Deuteronomic imagery of a path in Proverbs, saying, "['Way'] is also used by most biblical writers to refer to human behaviour, either in terms of actions, or more commonly, in terms of a general pattern of behaviour. … It is possible to 'walk in the way' of others by imitating what they do." He goes on to say that there was a common association between "the divine way and the Law" (Weeks, Instruction and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9, 150, 151-52). is often simplified by translating "know" as "acknowledge" or through the beth locale sense "in," 259 these adjustments obfuscate the teacher's import. The point is that the son will "know" God by walking in his ways with him. Again, the operative metaphor is walking on a path. Reversing the sense helps to illuminate the point, "You do not know God if you do not walk in his ways." In other words, the son must "trust" God internally with his heart and he must "know" God through his behaviors, decisions, desires, and ultimately his commitment to walking the "straight" path. In this sense, then, knowledge is embodied action rather than abstracted intellectualism. 260 Thus, by refusing to do as the teacher instructs, the fool not only forfeits the path of God but the God on that path. Thus, the son's behavior serves as a conduit and center for his knowledge, in this case a relational knowledge with God. 261 In 3:7-8, the father turns to "fear Yhwh." Here, the son learns that he cannot be the source of wisdom, "Be not wise in your own eyes, fear Yhwh." 262 The lesson parallels Isaiah's warning, "Woe to those wise in their own eyes" (Isa 5:21). Isaiah's prophetic condemnation focuses on the wickedness and injustice of Israel and Judah (Isa 5:7-24). In fact, Isaiah gives the root of these aberrant ways, "They have rejected the torah of Yhwh" (Isa 5:24). Similarly, the teacher in Prov 3 expands on the solution or root cause by commanding the son to "fear Yhwh" 259 See Williams and Beckman, Williams' Hebrew Syntax, 97-98; Waltke and O'Connor, Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 196-97.
See O'Dowd, The Wisdom of Torah, 3, 48. 261 Waltke rightly notes, "'To know' in this book means personal knowledge, intimate experience with a person's reality. … The noted connections between the spiritual consequences in Lecture 2 and the spiritual admonitions in ch. 3 infer that 'know' in 3:6a has the same sense as in 2:5b" (Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 244-45). 262 McKane impugns "old wisdom" as "intellectual self-determination." This view leads him to see 3:7 as an attack on such wisdom, deriving from the prophetic tradition. However, Fox, along with Whybray, argues that McKane's view is misguided, on account of both ANE material and proverbs from "early collections." As mentioned elsewhere, the prophets and sages both condemned illegitimate prophecy and wisdom, characterized by their disconnect from Yhwh and his way. See McKane, Proverbs, 292; Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 154-55; Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 150-51;
Whybray, Proverbs (1994), 62. 286 For some negative views on the fatherhood of God or its dismissal in the OT, see Wilhelm Bousset, Jesu Predigt in ihrem Gegensatz zum Judentum: ein religiongeschichtlicher Vergleich (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1892);
Sigmund Freud, Moses and Monotheism, trans. Katherine Jones (London: Hogarth, 1951);
Rudolf Bultmann, Primitive Christianity in Its Contemporary Setting, trans. R. H. Fuller (New York: Meridian, 1956);
Joachim Jeremias, The Prayers of Jesus (Naperville: Allenson, 1967);
Mary Daly, Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women's Liberation (Boston: Beacon, 1973);
Robert Hamerton-Kelly, God the Father: Theology and Patriarchy in the Teachings of Jesus (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979);
Johann Baptist Metz, Edward Schillebeeckx, and Marcus Lefébure, eds., God as Father?, Concilium 143 (New York: Seabury, 1981);
Thomas McGovern, "John Paul II on the Millennium and God as Father," Homiletic and Pastoral Review 99.7 (1999): 8-17.
E.g., Exod 4:22; Deut 8:5, 32:6; 2 Sam 7:14; Isa 63:16, 64:8; Jer 3:4, 19, 31:9; Hos 11:1; Mal 1:6, 2:10; Ps 2:7, 68:5, 89:26, 103:13; Prov 3:12; 1 Chr 17:13, 22:10, 28:6, 29:10. 299 Thompson makes the case for continuity in the NT from the OT for this foundational metaphor. See Marianne M. Thompson, The Promise of the Father: Jesus and God in the New Testament (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000). 300 Holmes builds on the patristic theologians to say, "Christian faith does not simply benefit from talk about imitation of God; the pursuit of God, and of saying things that are true of God, assumes imitation." Similarly, Gregory of Nyssa observes, "It is necessary for anyone desiring to be closely united with another to take on the ways of that person through imitation." See Christopher R. J. Holmes, A Theology of the Christian Life: Imitating and Participating in God (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2021), 47, 50, 54; Gregory of Nyssa, On the Christian Mode of Life, trans. Virginia Woods Callahan (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1967), 133. 11:19). Yet, it is clearly rooted in the ideal expression of fatherhood, Yhwh being a father with musar and "love." It is important at this point to elucidate the fatherhood metaphor in Prov 3:11-12 more directly. While many of the passages referenced thus far may appear tangential, the concept of musar here must be considered in order to rightly understand why the teacher inserted Yhwh as the Father. Of particular importance is the question, what is the goal of musar? On a basic, simplistic level, musar is related to obedience and torah. Yet, it is important to understand that musar is not an end but a means to an end. As taught throughout the HB, musar is more akin to guidance and leading on a path than a mere event or quality. Indeed, musar is at the heart of formation or walking the straight path. The ideal, of course, is to be or become like the one guiding and instructing. One of the major complaints from the prophets was the blindness, foolishness, and wickedness of the supposed sages and leaders. They were not exemplars in the least. Rather, the proverbial son is to pattern his character and conduct according to his father who is preeminently derived from and concluded in God, the supreme Father. 303 As Bland notes, "The truly wise ones humbly submit themselves to God. … They see life as a journey in which God's discipline molds them into his image." 304 Similarly, through parallel, the son is to be like the father as all of Israel is to be like the divine-Father. 305 Thus, in this introductory verses of Lesson 4, a great deal is communicated through the seemingly simple fatherhood metaphor. 306 303 Bland confirms this imitative trajectory, "Parents follow God's example by observing how God disciplines." In this sense, it is not only the son who is being formed in Prov 1-9 through an imitative schema but also parents -or any other parental, teaching figure. See Bland, Proverbs and the Formation of Character, 25-26.
Bland, Proverbs and the Formation of Character, 6.
McKay, "Man's Love for God in Deuteronomy and The Father/Teacher -Son/Pupil Relationship," 432. 306 Derousseaux calls it the "pedagogy of the divine father." Keefer adds to this the emphasis on divine imminence rather than transcendence at this point, "the affective, familial care of a father to a son." See Louis Despite thoughtful attention to structure, a grammatical difficulty occurs with the opening of the lesson. Though the teacher uses the typical "my son," he once again utilizes the third masculine plural, similar to 3:3. However, in 3:3, the reference was fronted with "steadfast love and faithfulness." Here, the referent is less apparent. Several reasonable options are possible: 1. "wisdom" (3:13-20);
2. "steadfast love and faithfulness" (3:3);
the father's commands and torah (3:1); 330
"words" and "sayings" (4:20-21); 331 5. the admonitions (3:25-31); 332 or 6. "sound wisdom and discretion" (3:21b). 333 Following 3:21, the verb of 3:22 is also in the third masculine plural, though with the weqatal form. This initial blessing seems to coordinate with the other nine blessings as related results of the opening line. For the first option, several scholars prefer the referent to be "wisdom," which is drawn from 3:13-20. 334 While possible, it is not clear why the plural is used then, which could imply wisdom and understanding or knowledge, though quite distant (3:13). 335 Murphy also attempts to appeal to the gift of "life" appearing in 3:2, 16, and 18, along with similar imagery in 1:9, "a grace for your head … a necklace for your neck," to coordinate the referents. For 1:9 and 3:2, the referent is actually torah and "commands," not "wisdom." This would be a confused and conflated reference, not fitting well 329 Fox notes this was an option proposed by a few medieval rabbis but believes it would not fit with the sense of 3:21. See David A. Hubbard, Mastering the Old Testament: Proverbs (Waco: Word Books, 1989), 76;
Meinhold, Die Sprüche, 84; Murphy, Proverbs, 23; Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 263; Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 177; Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 163.
See Plöger, Spruche Salomos (Proverbia), 39.
See Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 163.
See Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 151.
See McKane, Proverbs, 298; Meinhold, Die Sprüche, 84; Whybray, Composition of the Book of Proverbs, 19-20;
Whybray, Proverbs (1994), 70; Perdue, Proverbs, 105, 110; Longman, Proverbs, 140-41.
Murphy, Proverbs, 23; Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 263; Overland, "Literary Structure in Proverbs 1-9," 285-90. Waltke bases his structure on the work by Overland. 335
Whybray, Proverbs (1994), 70.
foolishness/confidence" ‫ֶָך(‬ ‫ל‬ ‫סְ‬ ‫כִ‬ ‫)בְ‬ or "in your path" ‫ָך(‬ ‫ַתֶ‬ ‫ל‬ ‫סִ‬ ‫מְ‬ ‫.)בִ‬ 369 The mistake between the ‫)מ(‬ and ‫)
כ(‬ is quite possible due to their similarity in the paleo-Hebrew script. Though the term "path" ‫ָּה(‬ ‫ל‬ ‫סִ‬ ‫)מְ‬ is uncommon, it does occur later in Prov 16:17, "The path ‫ָּה(‬ ‫ל‬ ‫סִ‬ ‫)מְ‬ of the upright turns from evil, one guarding his soul, who protects ( ‫)נצר‬ his way ‫".)דרך(‬ This verse echoes a number of phrases and ideas central to the lessons of Prov 1-9, particularly the "path" metaphor and "guarding." In either reading of 3:26, the emphasis is on the presence and providence of Yhwh with the son. The strong path theme in Prov 1-9, the LXX textual tradition, and the correspondence with 16:17 may incline the reading here toward "path." In this view, Yhwh will not just be a hope for the son but he will be with the son in his way. 370 As Lesson 3 instructed, the son is to "know Yhwh in all of his ways." Thus, the mirrored connection implies that Yhwh will be with him in his ways as the son walks in the Lord's ways, presumably with him. This promise of nearness and relation serves as the fourth blessing, which will "guard" the son's foot from capture. As discussed in Lesson 2, the notion of "guarding" ‫)שמר(‬ or "protecting" ‫)נצר(‬ occurs often in Prov 1-9 both as a charge to the son and as a promise from Yhwh or Wisdom. 371
In both Lessons 2 and 5, the uncommon term "discretion" ‫ה(‬ ‫ִמָּ‬ ‫ז‬ ‫)מְ‬ is used in reversed perspective.
Here, in 3:21, the term serves as one of the overarching qualities the son is to "protect" ‫.)נצר(‬ However, in 2:11, it says, "Discretion ‫ה(‬ ‫ִמָּ‬ ‫ז‬ ‫)מְ‬ will guard ‫)שמר(‬ over you; understanding will protect ( ‫)נצר‬ you." Now that the son has been protected by discretion, he must also protect 369 If the term "confidence" is original, the preposition would be a beth essentiae (Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 157). If it is "path," then the preposition is accompaniment. 370 Longman follows the "confidence" reading but rightly comments on the implications for divine presence, "Confidence that follows from a life of wisdom: the presence of Yahweh in one's life. God himself will guarantee one's protection. The presence of Yahweh is likely to be connected to the teaching explicit elsewhere in Proverbs that those who are wise are in relationship with Yahweh (1:7)" (Longman, Proverbs, 142).
Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 151. is possible the teacher took his queues from the Torah, "This is the command, statutes, and judgments, which Yhwh your (pl.) God commanded to teach you (pl.) … So that, you (sg.) may fear Yhwh your (sg.) God, guarding all his statutes and commands which I am commanding you, you and your sons and your sons' sons … You (sg.) shall repeat them to your sons and you shall speak of them in your sitting, in your house, in your walking in the way, and in your lying and your rising" (Deut 6:1, 2, 7). 11 In this appeal from Moses, the transgenerational command is both collective and singular, intended both for fathers-to-sons and sons-to-their sons for each family and for the whole of Israel. The appeal not only grounds the authority of the proverbial instruction in Yhwh, 12 but it also promotes the means of its reception, a cascade of imitative succession. 13 Related to this notion, a second curious feature of 4:1 is the phrase ‫ב‬ ‫אָּ‬ ‫ר‬ ‫.מּוסַ‬ Although nearly identical to 1:8, the phrase in Lesson 1 was specifically, "My son, listen to your father's musar." Whereas, here in 4:1, it is, "My sons, listen to fatherly musar." The important difference 'pre-History' of the Question," ETL 55.1 (1979): 116-24;
Hans Ausloos, "The Risks of Rash Textual Criticism Illustrated on the Basis of the Numeruswechsel in Exod 23,20-33," BN 96 (1999): 5-11. 11 Tasker and McCarthy make the case that the father-son relationship, expressed between Yhwh and Israel in Deuteronomy, was not ancillary or contradictory to the covenant but quite central, particularly in respect to fatherly instruction. See D. J. McCarthy, "Notes on the Love of God in Deuteronomy and the Father-Son Relationship between Yahweh and Israel," CBQ 27.2 (1965): 144-47;
David R. Tasker, Ancient near Eastern Literature and the Hebrew Scriptures about the Fatherhood of God, StBibLit 69 (New York: Peter Lang, 2004), 176-77. 12
Stuart Weeks, Instruction and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 123; Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 208;
David A. Hubbard, Mastering the Old Testament: Proverbs (Waco: Word Books, 1989), 82. 13 Educationists and psychologists have noted three modes of learning: "imitative learning," "instructive learning," and "collaborative learning." Although these categories are often assigned to age ranges, they seem to observe fundamental roots to the educational process, common throughout humanity. For further discussion, see Jeroen Dekker, "Cultural Transmission and Inter-Generational Interaction," International Review of Education 47.1/2 (2001): 82; Michael Tomasello, Ann C. Kruger, and Hilary H. Ratner, "Cultural Learning," Behavioral & Brain Sciences 16.3 (1993): 495-511; Gergely Csibra and György Gergely, "Sylvia's Recipe: The Role of Imitation and Pedagogy in the Transmission of Cultural Knowledge," in Roots of Human Sociality: Culture, Cognition, and Human Interaction (Oxford: Berg, 2006), 229-55;
Michael Tomasello, "Emulation Learning and Cultural Learning," Behavioral & Brain Sciences 21 (2002): 703-4.
Carol A. Newsom, "Woman and the Discourse of Patriarchal Wisdom: A Study of Proverbs 1-9," in Gender and Difference in Ancient Israel, ed. Peggy L. Day (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989), 151. 16 Stepping into the long debate over the social setting of Israelite education, Vayntrub declares, "There exists no available data on the social or educational function of the biblical book of Proverbs." By this, she intends external corresponding evidence which might definitively place early Israelite education and the book of Proverbs. Instead, until further developments occur, the question remains ambiguous and speculative. See Jacqueline E. Vayntrub, "The Book of Proverbs and the Idea of Ancient Israelite Education," ZAW 128.1 (2016): 98. 17 Pemberton notes the uniqueness of the explicit mention of a grandfather in the didactic process (Glenn D. Pemberton, "The Rhetoric of the Father: A Rhetorical Analysis of the Father/Son Lectures in Proverbs 1-9" (University of Denver; Colorado Seminary, PhD diss., 1999), 136). tongue [brings forth] an indignant face" (25:23). 33 In this example, the term cannot mean to create, give birth, or to writhe. Rather, there is an associative presence implied. It could mean causation but does not require such a strict connotation. In a reverse parallel, the associative quality of ‫חיל‬ would imply that Wisdom was with Yhwh in his bringing about his creative acts, even as an active force in the process. In fact, 8:27a and 30a seem to make this associative connection, "When he established the heavens, I was there ‫י(‬ ‫נִ‬ ‫אָּ‬ ‫ם‬ ‫שָּ‬ ‫ם‬ ִ ‫י‬ ‫מַ‬ ‫שָּ‬ ‫ו‬ ‫ינֹׂ‬ ‫ֲכִ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫)בַ‬ … I was beside him, a craftsman ‫ון(‬ ‫מֹׂ‬ ‫אָּ‬ ‫ֹלו‬ ‫צְ‬ ‫אֶ‬ ‫ֶה‬ ‫י‬ ‫הְ‬ ‫ָּאֶ‬ ‫")ו‬ (cf. Wis 7:22, 8:6). 34 The overarching sense of Wisdom's self- description in 8:22-31 is her intimate association with Yhwh, both in temporal primacy and supremacy (cf. 3:19). 35 Thus, the term ‫קנה‬ in 8:22, whether "brought forth" or "possessed" in meaning, likely intends her associative presence with Yhwh. On one hand, Yhwh possessed Wisdom as an eternal attribute, in the sense of essence. 36 On the other, he brought her forth as a 33 The MT points 25:23 with the active polel but 8:24-25 with the passive polal. It is possible the pointing for 8:24-25 was mistaken and should represent the polel. There is no textual evidence for this alternative. However, the slight emendation would imply that Wisdom was an active co-creator rather than implying she was created. In 8:30, Wisdom is subtly implied as a fellow creator with Yhwh. This change to the active would likely also apply to the niphal ‫י‬ ‫תִ‬ ‫כְ‬ ‫ִסַ‬ ‫נ‬ (either niphal or piel in form), "I anointed/established … I brought forth" (8:23-24). A similar phrase is used in Ps 90:2, which says, "Before the mountains were born and you brought forth ‫ֵל(‬ ‫ול‬ ‫חֹׂ‬ ‫)תְ‬ earth and world, you are God from everlasting." The polel is used but could be read as a polal implying the earth was passively brought forth as the LXX tradition follows. Although either would make sense here, certainty is difficult to establish for the form in any of the uses. Thus, it is plausible to say in Prov 8 either that Wisdom was brought forth by God or that Wisdom brought forth with God. Interestingly, later in this psalm ascribed to Moses though reminiscent of Ecclesiastes, the poet requests, "Make us know to rightly count our days and wisdom will enter the heart" (Ps 90:12). This last phrase is very close to Prov 2:10, "Wisdom will enter your heart." Though directionality is difficult to assess, there appears to be shared language and ideas, which are personified in Prov 1-9. 34 The first phrase of 8:30 is notoriously difficult and debated. Several options exist for the phrase and term ‫.אמן‬ First, "I was a craftsman at his side." Second, "I was beside him, the craftsman [Yhwh]." Third, "I was nursed at his side." Fourth, "I was beside him continually/faithfully." Each reading is plausible and is represented in various textual traditions and commentaries. Thus, Rendsburg argues all three are in view as a "brilliant display of polysemy." Regardless of the view taken, the text emphasizes the closeness of Wisdom to Yhwh and her primacy over creation and humanity. See Scott, "Wisdom in Creation"; Dahood, "Proverbs 8," 519; Michael V. Fox, "Amon Again," JBL 115.4 (1996): 699-702;
Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 417-21; Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 312-13;
Gary A. Rendsburg, "Literary and Linguistic Matters in the Book of Proverbs," in Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar, ed. John Jarick, LHBOTS 618 (London: T&T Clark, 2016), 117-18). 35
Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 417. 36 Fox emphasizes the created quality of Wisdom, going so far as to say, "[P]rior to creation God did not have wisdom … Wisdom is therefore an accidental attribute of godhead, not an essential or inherent one." This view 6:39). 88 In fact, Jesus later utilized a similar proverbial metaphor, 89 adding a poignant lesson worth noting, "A disciple is not above the teacher; but when fully trained up he shall be like his teacher" (Luke 6:40). As a teacher himself, Jesus understood the imitative trajectory of a disciple, culminating in one's reflection of their teacher. 90 A blind teacher creates blind disciples. Conversely, a teacher of light creates disciples of light. In Lesson 7, the father is the one who possesses light and wisdom. If the son will follow the father, he will walk the smooth path, ultimately rooted in following the ways of Yhwh who is the author of light (e.g., Gen 1:3; Isa 2:5, 45:7; Ps 27:1, 37:6, 43:3, 56:14, 119:105). 91
In Isaiah, a few helpful parallels surface as well. The Lord says in Isa 42:16, "I will cause the blind to walk in the way they do not know; in paths they do not know I will lead ‫)דרך(‬ them. I will make the darkness before them into light and their crookedness into straightness." 92 Likewise, in several places, God promised that the nation of Israel would one day become the source of light to the nations, passing on to them the ways of Yhwh, much like the father is doing for the son here (e.g., Isa 2:2-4, 42:6, 49:6, 51:4). 93 Thus, the proverbial father of Lesson 7 invokes the light metaphor in order to highlight the distinction 88 Cf. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 177. Schipper emphasizes the strong metaphorical connections between Prov 4:18-19 and Isa 56-66, also highlighting its presence in the Qumran scrolls. 89 Marshall and Green note the common proverbial usage of the blind leading the blind in antiquity, perhaps rooted in the biblical tradition. See I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text, NIGTC (Exeter: Paternoster, 1978), 268-70;
Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 277-78.
As Bock rightly understands, "[Jesus] is warning us to watch which teacher we follow. If we follow someone who takes in no light, we will stumble. So we are to consider carefully who our teacher is" (Darrell L. Bock, Luke, IVP New Testament Commentary (Downers Grove: IVP, 1994), 127).
Cf. Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 292. 92 Leading up to this statement, the Lord also promised of his coming servant, "I appoint you to be a covenant people, to be a light of nations, to open the eyes of the blind, to release the prisoner from prison, those sitting in darkness from bondage" (Isa 42:6b-7). The Lord and his servant are paralleled as bringers of light for those in darkness. 93 Oswalt notes the irony of Isaiah's prophecy that it is the blind who will be "bearers of light for the nations" once God reveals to them his salvation through the servant (Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah, 126-27). ‫מעגל‬ to instruct the son's careful consideration of his path. 109 The father says, "Consider ‫)פלס(‬ the path ‫)מעגל(‬ of your feet." The term ‫פלס‬ only occurs three times in Proverbs (4:26, 5:6, 5:21) and three other times elsewhere in the HB (Isa 26:7; Ps 58:3, 78:50). The root sense seems to be related to the nominal idea of a "balance" or "scale" ‫,)פלס(‬ which only occurs twice (Isa 40:12;
Prov 16:11). 110 In this way, the son is to weigh out or carefully examine the various aspects of his ways to see if they align with the straight-way. Isaiah spoke a similar phrase in a prophetic song for Judah, "The way of the righteous is straight; You consider ‫)פלס(‬ the path ‫)מעגל(‬ of the righteous" (Isa 26:7). For Isaiah, the righteous are those who are faithful to God (26:2; cf. Prov 3:3, 8:7), seek him (26:9; cf. Prov 1:28, 8:17), and trust in Yhwh (26:3-4; cf. Prov 3:5). 111 The use of ‫פלס‬ in Isa 26:7 is similar to Prov 5:21b, "and [Yhwh] considers ‫)פלס(‬ all his ways ‫",)מעגל(‬ speaking of the "ways of a man" from the first half. While Prov 5:21 seems to carry a dual sense of both warning and fatherly comfort, the Isaianic passage only implies the Lord's consideration in a positive and affirmative sense for the faithful. Much like the reciprocal connection for 5:21a, this second half also implies that the son is to imitate Yhwh in his careful considerations. Implicit here is that Yhwh is a wise teacher who carefully considers his own way and is able to guide and assist the student by carefully considering his way, as well. The positive correlation with Yhwh is further highlighted by the negative instance of the word pair found in 5:6, "The 109 Cf. Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 187. Fox initially argues for the verse to mean "make level" but quickly acknowledges it likely carries the sense of "weigh" or "consider." 110 The term ‫פלס‬ is found with an Akk. root (palāsu) in the sense of "to see, look" (HALOT). This may suggest that the idea of "weigh" or "scale" was a secondary, connotative, idiomatic, or derivative inference from the sense of "carefully look, examine," though others have proposed the Akk. sense of "bore through." Cf. McKane, Proverbs, 311; Whybray, Proverbs (1994), 83; Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 229. 111 Oswalt notes the reflective quality of those God saves, "God will certainly not act on behalf of the unrighteous, but those who have a passion for the same character as God's (righteousness and faithfulness, cf. 11:5) may depend upon him in patient hope" (John N. Oswalt, "God's Determination to Redeem His People (Isaiah 9:1-7, 11:1-11, 26:1-9, 35:1-10)," RevExp 88.2 (1991): 161). Walking the Straight Path As clarified in this lesson, it is necessary for the son to carefully consider the straight path, which ultimately leads to life (4:22). Yet, it is not clearly identified what the straight path is or what it entails. Presumably, all fifteen lessons centered around Lesson 8 are for the purpose of guiding the son and illuminating this path. However, Lesson 8 surprisingly does not provide many specifics, other than mentioning "a crooked mouth" and "devious lips" (4:24). As mentioned in the structure and themes of this lesson, there is a strong emphasis on the straight- way, though. This thread crescendos in the final verse, "Do not turn right or left; turn your feet from evil" (4:27). The phrase directs the son to a deeply important theme elsewhere in the HB. 116
Beginning in Deut 5, a motif that is centered on the faithfulness of Israel and the leader of Israel utilizes the admonition not to turn "right or left." 117 The parallel of this passage with Deut 5:32- 33 and its various features was discussed in the "Structure of Prov 1-9" section. To avoid redundancy, many of these salient aspects will not be restated. In Moses' exhortation, he commands the people of God to "walk in the whole way" which Yhwh commanded them (Deut 5:33). This passage concludes the re-giving of the Ten Commandments in preparation for the people to enter the land with their God, focusing on the covenantal imperative. 118 A similar preparatory statement resurfaces in Deut 17:20 with the well- known kingly regulations. 119 Once the covenant people are given peace in the land, the Lord will 116 Cf. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 191; Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 301.
Cf. A. Robert, "Les Attaches Littéraires Bibliques de Prov. I-IX," RB 43.1 (1934): 61-62; Whybray, Proverbs (1994), 83; McKane, Proverbs, 311. Without much reasoning except that it is common shared language, Whybray and McKane disagree with Robert that the passage has any relation to Deuteronomy. 118
Peter C. Craigie, The Book of Deuteronomy, NICOT (Eerdmans, 1976), 149-50.
119 In a nearby verse, a similar phrase is used to warn the people from rebelling against the verdicts of priests and judges, presumably as mediators of God's instruction, "You shall not turn ‫)סור(‬ from the word which they declare to you, right or left" (Deut 17:11).
God's son (2 Sam 7:14). Even David himself is curiously said to have a heart like God ‫בֹו(‬ ‫בָּ‬ ‫לְ‬ ‫,)כִ‬ implying a certain type of relation and reflection (1 Sam 13:14). 127 The phrase "walked in the way of his father" is not only used of Josiah, however. A number of kings are described with this phrase, both positively and negatively. Amon is said to have "walked in the whole way which his father walked," speaking of Manasseh's idolatry (2 Kgs 21:21). Prior to this, Jehoram is said to have "walked in the way of Israel's kings, just as the house of Ahab," doing what was "evil in the eyes of Yhwh" (2 Kgs 8:18). In a positive example, Jehoshaphat is said to have "walked in the whole way of Asa his father. He did not turn ‫)סור(‬ from it, doing right ‫ר(‬ ‫ָּשָּ‬ ‫י‬ ‫)הַ‬ in the eyes of Yhwh" (1 Kgs 22:43). In fact, it says that he was "buried with his fathers in the city of David, his father" (1 Kgs 22:51). Almost immediately after, Ahaziah is said to have done what was evil in the eyes of Yhwh, summarized as, "He walked in the way of his father and in the way of his mother and in the way of Jeroboam" (1 Kgs 22:52). As the preeminent negative example, Jeroboam is named as the patriarch of four other aberrant kings of Israel, in the early stages of separation, who walked in his evil ways -Nabab, Baasha, Zimri, and Omri (1 Kgs 15:26, 34, 16:19, 26). Although only Nadab is his actual son, the rest are treated as though they were sons due to their reflection of his ways. The entirety of the motif perpetuates the notion that individuals are associated with others through an imitative relationship characterized by a father- Deut 6:5). Cf. Mordechai Cogan and Hayim Tadmor, II Kings: A New Translation, AB 11 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1988), 281; Iain W. Provan, 1 and 2 Kings (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2012), 270. 127 There has been some debate as to the meaning of the phrase ‫בֹו‬ ‫בָּ‬ ‫לְ‬ ‫.כִ‬ Johnson and Athas have argued that it refers only to God's election, not David's relation or reflection of Yhwh and his ways. However, DeRouchie and Long propose a middle-way or both-and approach. The selection of God for covenant and service necessarily implies conformity and reflection. Furthermore, it is not enough to say this phrase only means God chose David because God also chose Saul. Yet, he was not referred to in this way. Likewise, as seen in the motif throughout Kings, David is a patriarch and an exemplar for those who walk in God's ways. See Jason S. DeRouchie, "The Heart of YHWH and His Chosen One in 1 Samuel 13:14," BBR 24.4 (2014): 467-89;
George Athas, "'A Man after God's Own Heart': David and the Rhetoric of Election to Kingship," JESOT 2.2 (2013): 191-97; Benjamin J. M. Johnson, "The Heart of YHWH's Chosen One in 1 Samuel," JBL 131.3 (2012): 455-66;
V. Philips Long, The Reign and Rejection of King Saul: A Case for Literary and Theological Coherence, SBLDS 118 (Atlanta: Scholars, 1989), 92. psalmist declares at the end of the unit (119:104) that he hates every false path ( ‫ח‬ ‫רַ‬ ‫ָּל-אֹׂ‬ ‫כ‬ ‫י‬ ‫ֵאתִ‬ ‫נ‬ ‫שָּ‬ ‫ר‬ ‫קֶ‬ ‫.)שָּ‬ This hate is of course the exact opposite of the one described in Prov 5:12-13, who hated musar (or knowledge in 1:29). Following the straight-way motif, the psalmist also mentions, "I did not turn ‫)סור(‬ from your judgments" (119:102). The "turn" metaphor plays a central role in identifying righteous or wicked leaders throughout Kings and serves to identify those who are wise or foolish in Proverbs. In Lesson 10, these "teachers" are not clearly identified but from the rest of Prov 1-9 would at least include the father, grandfather, Wisdom, and Yhwh. 172 If the diachronic perspective for the plural "sons" is in view (5:7), 173 this would also imply the fatherly lineage of all those who have followed in the ways of Yhwh throughout the generations. In the second major section of the lesson (5:15-20), the father focuses on positively encouraging fidelity rather than merely avoiding the unchaste ways of the zarah (5:8, 20). To do this, he envelops his instruction with the language of intimacy and marriage. The metaphor seems to propel a triple entendre (or three referential implications). 174 These referents are fidelity to a spouse, Wisdom, and Yhwh (or his torah). 175 On a very basic, mundane level, the son is to 172 The LXX changes these terms to singular. While the father is one of his teachers, he is not the only one.
Schipper, however, takes the terms in an overly scholastic sense, perhaps due to his late dating of the material. Rather than specific terminology for a "type of professional group," the terms imply the multiplicity of legitimate instructors along the son's path, which may have included formal teachers as well. Fox and Waltke rightly view the terms as generic for any instructive figure, whether formally or informally. Meinhold takes a neutral stance. Cf. Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 198; Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 208; Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 315; Toy, Proverbs, 110; Meinhold, Die Sprüche, 104.
See Lesson 6 for further discussion. Waltke argues for the diachronic transmission but Loader is skeptical, preferring the general or universal intent (Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 276, 311; Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 238- 39). 174 Schipper notes the tri-level intent of the passage as well. Also, Steen provides an interesting discussion on polyvalent metaphors and reader comprehension. See Gerard Steen, "How to Do Things with Metaphor in Literature," RBPH 68.3 (1990): 658-71;
Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 213-14. 175 Schipper refers to these three levels as the "erotic/sexual level," "sapiential knowledge," and the "religious dimension" (Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 215-16).
Cf. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 206. 197 Schipper notes the generic and multifaceted implication of the zarah stating, "The female figure ultimately symbolizes the deceptive potential of the wrong path" (Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 199). 198 Perdue notes that these references may allude to a prostitute/adulterer's house, a pagan temple, or the "metaphorical world of folly and wickedness, where death dwells." In reality, they may implicate all three, as noted elsewhere. See Perdue, Proverbs, 120-21.
Longman, Proverbs, 163. The imagery of Prov 5 is primarily sexual in nature while the imagery in Prov 9 is likely cultic, though they overlap in language and intent. the literary flow, there is a relational movement from near to far, 9 serving as a poetic device to illuminate the descent of the foolish way into abject opposition to Yhwh. The initial address is "my son," which is stated twice. 10 This doubled address to "my son" (6:1, 3) only occurs elsewhere in Lesson 1 (1:8, 10, 15) and Lesson 10 (5:7, 20). It implies knowledge, concern, care, and personal interest, perhaps even hope for a return to the wise path. The second figure addressed is the "sluggard," which is specific -second masculine singular with a doubled address, as well (6:6, 9) -but not as personal. Here, there is concern and perhaps hope for such a person, but it is not as intimate as the first filial call. The third section merely references the ways of a "worthless man" in a third-person description, coming across as very generic and impersonal. Finally, the fourth section is completely disconnected, serving as a general declarative statement of actions and individuals with no relation to the father or Yhwh. This hopeless and conclusive fate of the wicked parallels the end of several earlier lessons (2:22, 4:19, 5:6, 22-23). 11
Through the literary flow, there is a palpable and intuitive sensation of growing danger, climaxing in the utter "hate" ‫)שנא(‬ of Yhwh, 12 which may itself be a play on the term "sleep" Keil and Delitzsch, Commentary on the Old Testament, 6:97; Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1- 15, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 341.
9 Cf. Otto Plöger, Spruche Salomos (Proverbia), BKAT 17 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1984), 65-66; Meinhold, Die Sprüche, 108; Whybray, Composition of the Book of Proverbs, 51. These scholars note the progressive movement in seriousness but do not mention the relational distancing. 10 Loader and Meinhold note the double address to both "my son" and the "sluggard" (6:1, 3, 6, 9). This connection further draws the units together, perhaps illuminating the cause of the duplicate "my son." See Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 251; Meinhold, Die Sprüche, 108-9, 113-14.
Cf. Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 329; Meinhold, Die Sprüche, 108.
In Mal 1:2-3, Yhwh is said to "hate" Esau but "love" Jacob. The terms seem to imply relationship rather than emotion or hostility. Jacob was chosen as the conduit of God's covenant. Esau was not. Later the NT's reflection on this narrative implies it was due to Esau promising his birthright in a rash, unwise agreement. In the words of Lesson 11, he was caught in the words of his mouth, an early negative exemplar of rash deals. The proverbial son was not to emulate Esau and his ways.
Cf. Plöger, Spruche Salomos (Proverbia), 65; Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 270; Leo G. Perdue, Proverbs, IBC (Louisville: John Knox, 2000), 126.
William McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach, OTL (London: SCM, 1970), 325. 42 The numerical proverb type (e.g., "six ... seven") is only attested a couple of times in the HB (e.g., Prov 30; Amos 1-2; Hos 6:2). While there are no examples in Egyptian wisdom, Day notes the occurrence in Ugaritic and West Semitic wisdom (cf. KTU 1.
III.17-21; Ahiqar 92-93). See Day, "Foreign Semitic Influence on the Wisdom of Israel and Its Appropriation in the Book of Proverbs," 64; Nicolas Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, BibSem 53 (London: Sheffield Academic, 2003).
Meinhold notes there is a sense of "incompatibility" (unvereinbar) with him. Similarly, Whybray says, "It destroys the possibility of a positive relationship with Yahweh." See Meinhold, Die Sprüche, 115; R. N. Whybray, Proverbs: Based on the Revised Standard Version, NCBC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 100. 44 Martens refers to this use as "people or items belonging in a category or group" (E. A. Martens, ‫ן"‬ ‫",בֵ‬ in TWOT (Chicago: Moody, 1999), 114). Also, although Eli is not directly indicted for evil ways as his sons are, he does receive rebuke and judgment for improperly teaching and leading his sons in the way of Yhwh (1 Sam 2:29, 3:14). 45 Longman notes the proverbial parallels in this psalm (Tremper Longman III, Psalms: An Introduction and Commentary, TOTC (Nottingham: IVP, 2014), 350).
Cf. Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 342. 47 Longman and Youngblood note the connections between 2 Sam and Ps 101 (Longman, Psalm, 351-52;
Ronald F. Youngblood, "1, 2 Samuel," in The Expositor's Bible Commentary: 1 Samuel-2 Kings, ed. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, Rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 581).
Fox notes that the two terms are used interchangeably for both father and mother (e.g., 1:8, 3:1, 4:2, 7:2, 31:1), indicating there is not a specific connection for either term with a particular parent or person. Schipper also proposes that they may be "synonymous" in this verse. According to Cook, the LXX translator viewed the terms for the dangerous woman (6:24) as a metaphorical hendiadys rather than distinct persons. See Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 228;
Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 239, 240; Johann Cook, The Septuagint of Proverbs: Jewish and/or Hellenistic Proverbs? VTSup 69 (New York: Brill, 1997), 184-86.
gods, rather than "fully after ‫)אחרי(‬ Yhwh as David his father" (11:5). 70 While the term ‫דבק‬ does not appear in Lesson 12, the sentiment certainly does, both in the positive and negative (Prov 6:20-24). 71 The proverbial son is tempted to follow in aberrant ways by desiring the "evil woman" and being captured by her, a form of apostasy and folly (6:25). 72 In the passage from Num 25, it is important to see that their adulterous behavior provoked Yhwh to "anger" ‫)חמה(‬ and "jealousy" ‫)קנא(‬ (25:11). 73 Although the term for "jealousy" does not appear with Solomon, the term is used of Judah and Rehoboam who caused Yhwh to be "jealous" ( ‫)קנא‬ due to following Solomon in his aberrant worship and various "abominations of the nations" (1 Kgs 14:22-24). Interestingly, the terms for "anger" and "jealousy" appear in Prov 6:34 for the offended man, which parallel Num 25. While the use here seems to imply the mundane level for the husband of an adulterous woman, 74 it must not be removed from the context of the "evil woman" and broader "stranger" motif that is found throughout Prov 1-9 (2:16, 5:3, 20, 7:5; cf. Exod 34:13-16; Num 5:14-30; Deut 7:2-5). 75 The proverbial teaching weaves together the 70 Interestingly, Solomon seems to serve as both a positive and negative exemplar for wisdom. The wisdom student will determine by his choices which version of Solomon he will imitate and follow. Cf. Tan, "Foreignness" of the Foreign Woman in Proverbs 1-9, 103-4. 71 Lesson 4 instead uses the more proverbial term "grasp" ‫)תמך(‬ while Lesson 6 uses "embrace" ‫)חבק(‬ to indicate a similar sentiment (3:18, 4:8; cf. Prov 4:4, 5:5, 5:20, 5:22; Song 2:6, 8:3).
The following verse (6:26) mentions the cost of prostitution as a "loaf of bread" and that a "married woman hunts for life." Similar language is used in Ezek 13:17-23 regarding women who use magic and divination. If the terms carried this imagery generally, it would further condemn and identify the ways of the "evil woman" with the pagan practices of the nations. See Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 232. 73 These terms appear together only a few times, always in reference to Yhwh except once (Num 25:11;
Ezek 5:13, 16:38, 42, 23:25, 36:6; Zech 8:2; Prov 6:34, 27:4).
Tan rightly notes the "association of apostasy with adultery" in the first half of the lesson but then goes on to incorrectly say that the "foreign woman" motif has no use or association in the latter half of the lesson, which deals only with adultery. See Tan, "Foreignness" of the Foreign Woman in Proverbs 1-9, 95. 75 Weeks rightly notes, "What the woman seems to represent, after all, does not involve her having a fixed or specific marital status, merely the capacity to corrupt and ruin. … Adultery, after all, is the classic biblical figure for apostasy" (Weeks, Instruction and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9, 142-43).
Schipper notes the holistic framing of this verse, which in his view could only properly refer to Yhwh (Bernd U. Schipper, "When Wisdom is not Enough! The Discourse on Wisdom and Torah and the Composition of the Book of Proverbs," in Wisdom and Torah: The Reception of "Torah" in the Wisdom Literature of the Second Temple Period, ed. Bernd U. Schipper and D. Andrew Teeter, JSJSup 163 (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 62).
In the Talmud, b. Sota 21A refers to this as the Torah, which is a companion even into the eschatological age. See Jacob Neusner, The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2011), 11:102. 88 Plöger, Spruche Salomos (Proverbia), 69.
Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 229; C. H. Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs, ICC (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1899), 133; Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 351-52. 90 See discussion on Prov 3:19.
Deuteronomic reference, functioning in the role of a parent. 91 However, the passage goes beyond Deut 6 to say, "she will lead ‫)נחה(‬ you" (Prov 6:22). Perhaps surprisingly, the term "lead" only appears once in Deuteronomy, "Yhwh alone leads ‫)נחה(‬ you, there is no strange ( ‫ָּר‬ ‫ֵכ‬ ‫)נ‬ god with him" (32:12). The passage speaks of God's faithfulness to Israel despite their foolishness and unfaithfulness to him. The term for a "strange" god is a lexical parallel with the feminine form "strange woman" ‫ָּה(‬ ‫י‬ ִ ‫ר‬ ‫ָּכְ‬ ‫)נ‬ of Prov 6:24. Furthermore, while the term ‫נחה‬ is not used much in
Deuteronomy, the idea appears several times regarding Yhwh's rescue of Israel out of Egypt (Exod 13:17, 21, 15:13, 32:34, 33:14; cf. Ps 77:21). 92 The Lord's leading ‫)נחה(‬ appears again with numerous examples in the psalter, for example, "Lead ‫)נחה(‬ me in the everlasting way" (Ps 139:24). 93 Thus, the unique interweaving of the transgenerational pedagogy of Deut 6 with imagery often associated with Yhwh implies the proverbial father's practical and theological intent. As an anthropomorphism of Yhwh, Wisdom will lead the son like a parent, or even as Moses, in the wise and faithful way. 94 Just as sons and kings are to follow in the ways of their forefathers (Lesson 8), so the proverbial son is to follow in the way of Wisdom and Yhwh. This point becomes particularly poignant through the parallel between 3:11-12 and 6:23. Lesson 4 speaks of Yhwh as a father who rebukes ‫ת(‬ ‫ַחַ‬ ‫)תֹוכ‬ a son out of his love (3:11). The son, however, must not reject Yhwh's 91 Meinhold, Die Sprüche, 117.
For a detailed discussion of the term ‫נחה‬ and the passage's relevance from Exodus, see Appendix A: Exodus and God's Leading in His Way.
See Ps 5:9, 23:3, 27:11, 31:4, 43:3, 61:3, 67:5, 73:24, 77:21, 78:14, 53, 72, 107:30, 139:10, 143:10. Schipper notes that the term typically "reflects the metaphor of a shepherd … to emphasize God's guidance" (Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 240). interpretations for the "strange woman." See Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 241, 252-62;
Scott C. Jones, "Wisdom's Pedagogy: A Comparison of Proverbs VII and 4Q184," VT 53.1 (2003): 68; Plöger, Spruche Salomos (Proverbia), 75-76;
Daniel J. Estes, Hear, My Son: Teaching and Learning in Proverbs 1-9, NSBT 4 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 117-18.
Cf. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 255.
Cf. Murphy, Proverbs, 42; Johnny E. Miles, Wise King -Royal Fool: Semiotics, Satire and Proverbs 1- 9 (New York: T&T Clark, 2004), 54.
Cf. Richard J. Clifford, The Wisdom Literature, Interpreting Biblical Texts (Nashville: Abingdon, 1998),
109 Jones argues that the equivalent Qumran lesson in 4Q184 differs in the area of nuance and competence. While the proverbial father intends for the son to progress in his discernment as part of his growth in wisdom, the Qumran teachers sought to avoid ambiguity or "indeterminacy in pedagogical method." See Jones, "Wisdom's Pedagogy," 75-80.
For detailed comparison and contrast, see Gale A. Yee, "'I Have Perfumed My Bed with Myrrh': The Foreign Woman ('iššâ Zārâ) in Proverbs 1-9," JSOT 13.43 (1989): 53-68;
J. N. Aletti, "Seduction et Parole En Proverbes I-IX," VT 27.2 (1977): 129-44; Jones, "Wisdom's Pedagogy." 111 The command from the father is an offensive or preemptive action meant to contrast the aggressive ways of the zarah, in order to fight passivity and naivety (Miles, Wise King -Royal Fool: Semiotics, Satire and Proverbs 1-9, 74). This proactive action is meant to parallel the proactive action of the zarah. Similarly, Lessons 1 and 15 both note that it is really Wisdom that initiates or embodies the proactive action by calling out to the naïve (1:20-21, 9:1-4). the father calls on the son to "guard" ‫)שמר(‬ his torah and mitsvah (7:1-2), subtly overlaying himself and his instruction with Wisdom and Yhwh. 112 Thus, the son's confession of Wisdom in 7:4 would serve as a means to fulfill or actualize the father's command in 7:1-2. The explicit personification of Wisdom here likely serves as a bridge or preview to the following two lessons, 113 which provide the most extensive anthropomorphic descriptions of Wisdom and her counterpart, Folly. 114 However, the father's use of "sister" regarding Wisdom seems a bit incongruous on the surface with the more consistent marital imagery used elsewhere (e.g., 4:4-
115 This sentiment is found within the poetic lines of the Song of Songs, as well (4:9-5:2). 116
As noted previously, though, the metaphorical uses of Wisdom are actually quite wide, including a wife, a mother, a teacher, a prophet, and an aspect or embodiment of Yhwh. 117 So, rather than implicate incestuous behavior (e.g., Lev 18:9-11; Deut 27:22; cf. 2 Sam 13:1-32), 118 the term is 112 Cf. Tremper Longman III, Proverbs, BCOTWP (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 186; Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 255.
Cf. Whybray, Composition of the Book of Proverbs, 27. Whybray notes a pattern where the lesson content is followed by "poems which are concerned with both personified Wisdom and with Yahweh," implying the intentional placement of Lesson 13 before 14. 114 Murphy observes similar traits between the seductress of Lesson 13 with Folly in Lesson 15. He also notes that this woman is "beside" ‫)אצל(‬ every corner (7:12) while Wisdom is "beside" Yhwh (8:30). This subtly implies the proper path the son ought to emulate. See Murphy, Proverbs, 43.
McKane, Waltke, and Longman argue the term is actually meant to imply "wife" or "bride" from Song of Songs and ANE love poetry. This would certainly align with the Wisdom as wife imagery, particularly as a deterrent to prostitution. However, Song of Songs explicitly pairs the term with "bride" while in Prov 7 the parallel line uses "kin" ‫.)מדע(‬ This difference implies familial rather than marital imagery is intended here as opposed to Song of Songs. See McKane, Proverbs, 334; Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 369-70; Longman, Proverbs, 187.
Fox, Schipper, and Jones note a number of other allusions as well. See Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 240;
Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 256; Jones, "Wisdom's Pedagogy," 70-71.
Cf. Fox, "Ideas of Wisdom in Proverbs 1-9," 625; Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 341. Fox generally argues for a multi-faceted view of the metaphorical source of Wisdom's imagery, finding elements of trace aspects from the variety of potential sources. However, he arrives at this by ascribing disunity to the text.
In Ugaritic lore, Anat was both the sister and consort of Baal. So, it is less probable that the proverbial father would imply through ambiguity not only a violation to Torah but also an aberrant aspect of Canaanite mythology. See CTA 10:2:10-3:21; Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, 156-59.
Cf. Longman, Proverbs, 187; Estes, Hear, My Son, 57; Raymond C. Van Leeuwen, "Liminality and Worldview in Proverbs 1-9," Semeia 50 (1990): 116; Perdue, Proverbs, 133. As Estes says regarding the implicit ways of the zarah, "They clearly portray the foolishness of living outside the limits of Yahweh's order." 121 Cf. Knut Martin Heim, Poetic Imagination in Proverbs: Variant Repetitions and the Nature of Poetry, BBRSup 4 (Eisenbrauns, 2013), 94-104. for the son or the naïve to learn and hear from her (8:4-5). What was primarily found in the mouth of the father is now found in the speech of Wisdom. 151 This conflation serves to establish Wisdom as a symbolic embodiment of the ideal characteristics of the wise, 152 namely of the father and Yhwh. The son's mundane exemplar is the father, but the father desires the son to progress on the upward trajectory toward God as the ultimate example of Wisdom. 153 In this portion of the lesson, the primary focus is on proper speech. A dominant characteristic of the wise is the speech they utter, which is an indicator of the path that they walk. Wisdom embodies purity of speech that rises to a divine level. 154 She states that "all the words of my mouth are righteous" (8:8). 155 In biblical understanding, such a claim is only true of God. 156
David, while complaining of the ubiquity of deceit, said, "The words of Yhwh are pure words, refined silver" (Ps 11:2, 7). 157 Similarly, Wisdom states that "wickedness is an abomination of my lips" (8:7). This language reflects the disdain of Yhwh in Lesson 11 (6:16-19; cf. 3:32). So, 151 As discussed previously, Wisdom and the father often overlap in their instruction. Cf. Fox, "Ideas of Wisdom in Proverbs 1-9," 630; Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 298. view, he believes this also conveys the accessibility of Wisdom, true of "God's commandments in Deut 30:11-14," as well. See Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 266-67. 153 Fox notes that "the teacher is wise, but wisdom itself transcends any human wisdom." This implies that there is an upward movement inherent in the wisdom program. See Fox, "Ideas of Wisdom in Proverbs 1-9," 633. 154 Cf. Whybray, Proverbs (1994), 123. 155 The father strings together a number of parallel terms to describe the purity of Wisdom's speech (8:6-
"upright" ‫ים(‬ ִ ‫ר‬ ‫ישָּ‬ ‫,)מֵ‬ "truth" ‫ת(‬ ‫ֱמֶ‬ ‫,)א‬ "righteous" ‫ק(‬ ‫דֶ‬ ‫,)צֶ‬ "straight" ( ‫חַ‬ ‫ָּכֹׂ‬ ‫,)נ‬ "abomination of my lips is wickedness," and "there is no twisting and crookedness in them." 156 In Ps 33:4-6, the psalmist describes the purity and power of Yhwh's word, "For the word of Yhwh is upright and all his work is true. One who loves righteousness and justice, the steadfast love of Yhwh fills the earth. By the word of Yhwh, the heavens were made; and by the breath of his mouth all their hosts." 157 The relatively uncommon phrase "children of man" ‫ם(‬ ‫דָּ‬ ‫אָּ‬ ‫ֵי‬ ‫נ‬ ‫)בְ‬ appears in both passages, possibly indicating an intentional correspondence (Ps 11:2, 9 // Prov 8:4, 31). Cf. Deut 32:8; 2 Sam 7:14; Jer 32:19; Ezek 31:14; Joel 1:12; Prov 15:11; Dan 10:16; and 11x in Psalms. Schipper holds that the phrase expressed "humanity as a whole," particularly in parallel with "men" ‫ים(‬ ‫ישִ‬ ‫.)אִ‬ See Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 297. So, what is the rhetorical value of this third speech for the father's lesson? It seems the primary function is not merely to exalt Wisdom. This conclusion was reached previously in the series of lessons. Rather, it is to exalt Wisdom's proximity, 185 companionship, and cooperation with Yhwh in his creation. 186 The language in this speech mingles several images such as a spouse (8:22), 187 a daughter (8:24-25, 30), 188 a fellow-craftsman (8:27-30), 189 and a joyful worshipper (8:30-31). 190 While each image carries significant interpretive value, it is really Wisdom's proximity to Yhwh that the father intends for the son to observe and desire at this point. It is perhaps the pedagogical climax in the whole of Prov 1-9. 191 Of course, the son cannot imitate Wisdom temporally by returning to the beginning of creation. However, as a son of Adam, he can return in a sense to the primordial world in which "the man" ‫ם(‬ ‫דָּ‬ ‫אָּ‬ ‫)הָּ‬ was tasked with working alongside God, subduing and exercising dominion over creation, which included the Garden (Gen 1:28, 2:15-17). 192 Man was the pinnacle of the creation narrative, receiving 185 Fox describes the status of Wisdom by her "residing in angelic proximity to God." See Fox, "Ideas of Wisdom in Proverbs 1-9," 633; Cleon L. Rogers III, "The Meaning and Significance of the Hebrew Word ‫אמון‬ in Proverbs 8,30," ZAW 109.2 (1997): 209. 186 This emphasis is native to the sagacious rhetoric from Moses, as well, "Surely this great nation is a wise and understanding people. For, which great nation has its god so near to him as Yhwh our God whenever we call out to him" (Deut 4:6b-7). The inherent benefit of proximity to God comes with wisdom, understanding, and obedience to Yhwh's way. 187 For a more detailed analysis, see the discussion in Lesson 6.
Cf. Lang, Wisdom and the Book of Proverbs, 63-64; Fox, "Ideas of Wisdom in Proverbs 1-9," 624;
Miles, Wise King -Royal Fool: Semiotics, Satire and Proverbs 1-9, 66.
Cf. Longman, Proverbs, 209.
Cf. Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 407; Meinhold, Die Sprüche, 143.
Cf. Loader, Proverbs 1-9, 324. 192 The case has been made that Prov 8:22-31 parallels numerous aspects of Gen 1-2. The observations tend to focus, however, only on the creative aspect and not the human component. If the father had in mind Gen 1-2, particularly after mentioning the kings and rulers who governed righteously, it is likely that he had in mind the first adam to serve as a model for the proverbial adam (8:31), as well. See Michaela Bauks and Gerlinde Baumann, "Im Anfang war ... ?: Gen 1,1ff und Prov 8,22-31 im Vergleich," BN 71 (1994): 24-52; Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 288-90. persist in a perpetual struggle between choosing the path of the righteous and refusing the path of sinners. 210 The Son's Final Teacher (8:32-36)
To begin the lesson, the father hands off his role to Wisdom as the primary teacher. As mentioned, she gives a call in Lesson 1 (1:22-33), framed by the father (1:20-21). Throughout the intervening lessons, she is mentioned and lauded regularly, taking on a variety of roles and relationships. 211 Yet, it is not until Lesson 14 that she once again speaks, occurring in a three-part monologue (8:4-9, 12-19, 20-31), framed by the father (8:1-3). Then, in Lesson 15, she again speaks (9:4-12), framed by the father (9:1-4). So, the introductory call of 8:32-36 is a unique and illuminating transition for the wisdom program. In the same words formerly given by the father, Wisdom now addresses the son. However, Wisdom as the embodiment of Yhwh expands and exalts the language and gravity of adhering to this instruction. 212 find such principles as Lev 19:18 sufficiently compelling yet. While a thorough discussion regarding the moral philosophy and psychology of Proverbs is beyond the scope of this study, further discussions and critiques of Kohlberg's theory can be found in the following: Lawrence Kohlberg, "Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive- Developmental Approach to Socialization," in Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research, ed. David A. Goslin (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969);
Lawrence Kohlberg, The Philosophy of Moral Development: Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1981);
Lawrence Kohlberg, The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1984);
Nicholas Wolterstorff, Educating for Responsible Action (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980);
Donald M. Joy, ed., Moral Development Foundations: Judeo-Christian Alternatives to Piaget/Kohlberg (Nashville: Abingdon, 1983);
Paul C. Vitz, "Critiques of Kohlberg's Model of Moral Development: A Summary," Revista Española de Pedagogía 52.197 (1994): 5-35;
Richard G. Shepard, "Biblical Progression as Moral Development: The Analogy and Its Implications," JPT 22.3 (1994): 182-86;
William C. Spohn, "Conscience and Moral Development," TS 61.1 (2000): 122-38;
Stephen K. Moroney, "Higher Stages?: Some Cautions for Christian Integration with Kohlberg's Theory," JPT 34.4 (2006): 361-71;
Boris Zizek, Detlef Garz, and Ewa Nowak, eds., Kohlberg Revisited, Moral Development and Citizenship Education 9 (Rotterdam: Sense, 2015);
Toy, Proverbs, 195.
As Schipper similarly mentions, "The process of sapiential learning is never finished; rather the wise person must study continually" (Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 331).
Cf. Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 333-41.
212 McKane says it slightly different, "Wisdom is a teacher authorized by Yahweh, and to submit to her is to do Yahweh's will" (McKane, Proverbs, 358). the blameless of way, those walking in the torah of Yhwh. Blessed are those guarding ‫)נצר(‬ his testimonies, those who seek him with their whole heart" (cf. Prov 8:17, 20, 35). 216
So, Wisdom here (Prov 8:32-36) pronounces that those who guard her ways and find her are the "blessed." While being in faithful relation with Yhwh has its salvific benefits (e.g., Deut 33:29; Ps 34:9), the relevant contribution for this lesson is two-fold. The son is not directly called "blessed" but encouraged to be like those who are "blessed." On one hand, the son is to imitate and follow in the ways of those who are "blessed," those who have walked in the torah way throughout the generations. 217 They are those who have a particular character and faithful way of life, those walking on the path of the wise (e.g., 2:20-21). On the other hand, the character of the "blessed" is not an end but a reflection of the ultimate source and teacher of the "blessed," Yhwh himself. He is the exemplar of righteousness, justice, and the wise path (cf. Isa 30:18). 218 Thus, the son ought to become like the "blessed" in his ways that he might ultimately reflect Yhwh in proper and intimate relation. Although Wisdom commends the son to "keep my ways," the phrase is likely drawn from those who reflect the "way of Yhwh" elsewhere. In Gen 18:19, a foundational passage, Yhwh speaks rhetorically or to his angelic entourage concerning Abraham, "I have known him so that he shall command his sons and house after him that they shall guard ‫)שמר(‬ the way of Yhwh ‫ָּה(‬ ‫יְהו‬ ‫ְך‬ ‫רֶ‬ ‫,)דֶ‬ doing righteousness and justice." Regarding the whole Torah, John Sailhamer argues, 216 Cf. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 315.
Cf. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 316.
In Isa 28:26 and 29, Motyer makes a connection with Isa 30:18 saying, "He guides him for justice; his God instructs him … he gives marvelous counsel, makes great wisdom ‫ָּה(‬ ‫י‬ ‫")תּושִ‬ (cf. Prov 2:7). As Motyer notes, God is perfect in his decision making and thus bringing about justice. By implication, God not only makes justice and is the example of a proper judge but he instructs and expects his people to do likewise. See J. A. Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah: An Introduction & Commentary (Downers Grove: IVP, 1993), 250. discern whom to train and invest in, 226 a skill implied later in Prov 26:4-5. 227 Interestingly, the language of "love" and "hate" is similarly used for those who seek and find Wisdom (8:35-36, 9:8). In a sense, the newly minted teacher will be the example or embodiment of Wisdom, as the father has been, for his students until they are able to move beyond him to Wisdom and Yhwh as their example. 228 This model is the perpetual cycle for wisdom training. 229 In Wisdom's speech, she commends her ways as life-giving or at least life-extending (9:6, 11). 230 However, there is a parallel that directs the gravity of her ways. In Prov 9:6, she states to the naïve, "Walk in the way of insight ‫ָּה(‬ ‫ינ‬ ‫".)בִ‬ This "way" seems to equate to her own ways, characterized here as "insight" (cf. 4:5, 7, 7:4, 8:14). Then, shortly after this she states, "Knowledge of the Holy One is insight ‫ָּה(‬ ‫ינ‬ ‫")בִ‬ (9:10b; cf. 30:3; Hos 12:1). 231 While much could be said about this verse, its connection with 9:6 implies a logical comparison. One who "walks in the way of insight" is one who possesses "knowledge of the Holy One." 232 Waltke mentions of 226 Cf. McKane, Proverbs, 368. 227 This verse says, "Do not answer a fool according to his folly lest you become like him. Answer a fool according to his folly lest he become wise in his eyes" (Prov 26:4-5). Similarly, Schipper argues that Prov 9 serves as the "reading guide for what follows," referring to Prov 10-31. See Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 323. 228 Fox draws from Khonshotep, a 13 th c. BCE Egyptian sage, saying, "To teach is to imitate God and it is godly to listen before answering." The Egyptian text says, "Man resembles the god in this way if he listens to a man's answer." Prior to this, the son of Khonshotep says, "I wish I were like you, as learned as you!" (Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 314; Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), 144, 145). Both Fox and Khonshotep mention the imitative relationship between a teacher and student, who ultimately derive their principles from the divine.
As Clifford mentions, "A sage is always a student, ever eager to learn" (Clifford, Proverbs, 106).
Cf. Murphy, Proverbs, 60.
Waltke, Proverbs (1-15), 442. 232 The subtle implication, here, is that the student in his pursuit of wisdom and knowledge is to reflect the holiness of the Holy One. The term for "holy" ‫)קדש(‬ surprisingly only occurs three times in Proverbs (9:10, 25:20, 30:3). The foundation for imitating the holy God of Israel, of course, began in Lev 11:44-45 and 19:2. There, the people were expected to be like their covenant partner, "You shall be holy for I am holy, Yhwh your God" (19:2; cf. 11:44-45). See Appendix B: Leviticus and the Holiness of God for a more extended discussion. For scholarly views on the topic, see John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible, 1st ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 110, 311; John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible, 2nd ed. (Grand this verse, "Wisdom consists in transcending the fallen human world and participating in the divine, the holy." By saying "participating in the divine," it would seem he implies a coterminous and reflective behavior for those on the wise path, the way of Yhwh. So, these verses help illuminate the relational quality of the wisdom program throughout. 233 Just as Lesson 2 taught that seeking wisdom would result in finding the "knowledge of God" (2:5), Lesson 15 teaches it is the one who listens to Wisdom that has "insight" and thus "knowledge of the Holy One." 234 In other words, those who walk on the path of the wise do so with and in reflection of Yhwh. As mentioned elsewhere, knowledge is a key characteristic of the wise and those walking in proper relation to Yhwh. 235 This is likely why the father inserts a somewhat arbitrary statement describing Folly, "She does not know anything" (9:13). 236 Similarly, the fools who follow her into Sheol are described as ignorant, both of the corruption in Folly's ways and of the fate for those who walk in them. In contrast, those who walk in righteousness will have Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 71, 292; John H. Walton and J. Harvey Walton, The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient Context (Downers Grove: IVP, 2019), 11, 44, 54-55, 203-4, 206; Esias E. Meyer, "When Synchrony Overtakes Diachrony: Perspectives on the Relationship between the Deuteronomic Code and the Holiness Code," OTE 30.3 (2017): 754-55, 757; John E. Hartley, Leviticus, WBC 4 (Dallas: Word Books, 1992), 309-12; Gordon J. Wenham, "The Gap between Law and Ethics in the Bible," JJS 48.1 (1997): 27; Robert R. Wilson, "Approaches to Old Testament Ethics," in Canon, Theology, and Old Testament Interpretation: Essays in Honor of Brevard S Childs (Philadelphia, 1988), 67; Esias E. Meyer, "The Dark Side of the Imitatio Dei. Why Imitating the God of the Holiness Code Is Not Always a Good Thing," OTE 22.2 (2009): 374; Howard Kreisel, "Imitatio Dei in Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed," AJS Review 19.2 (1994): 206; Eryl W. Davies, "Walking in God's Ways: The Concept of Imitatio Dei in the Old Testament," in In Search of True Wisdom (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999), 101; Samson Raphael Hirsch, The Pentateuch, trans. Isaac Levy, 2nd ed. (London: Judaica, 1962), 3:499-500;
Baruch A. Levine, Leviticus: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, The JPS Torah Commentary (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989), 125; Jo Bailey Wells, God's Holy People: A Theme in Biblical Theology, JSOTSup 305 (Sheffield: T&T Clark, 2000), 70, 93. 233 Cf. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 332.
Cf. McKane, Proverbs, 368; Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 308.
Whybray, Composition of the Book of Proverbs, 44.
Fox argues Folly and Wisdom are inverse reflections of the other, particularly in this regard. However, he does note that the sense of "does not know" could be an idiomatic way of saying "shameless." While plausible, the common motif of "knowledge" for the wise and "no knowledge" for the fool would suggest "shameless" is not the primary sense here in Prov 9 (Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 301). leaders of the earth … They shall all answer you and say, 'You have become weak like us, you have been made like us" (Isa 14:9-10; cf. Prov 9:18). 252 The attempt to imitate God in an unholy manner was not new. 253 The King of Babylon was just another fool in a long line of fools. So, in his impetuous pride, he follows his fellow fools both in their life and death. 254 His reflection of their ways necessarily results in his reflection of their fate. This path and fate are similarly expressed in Prov 9. It is telling that both passages use similar terms and imagery. 255 While Prov 9 does not limit the identity of the Rephaim to Babylon (Prov 9:18), the implication is that the house of Folly is full of such foolish travelers, who thought themselves more wise than Wisdom and more powerful than Yhwh. The King of Babylon perhaps serves as an exemplar or 252 Although Holladay argues that the departed are other fallen kings, he proposes the judgement of this King of Babylon is not so much his descent to the grave but his loss of honor and remembrance in their company (Isa 14:19-20). It would seem Holladay unnecessarily separates the two, which both work as elements of the same judgment. Nordheim-Diehl observes the variety of biblical text traditions (MT, LXX, Q, Tg.) and their views of Sheol, arguing for a conceptual development from Sheol being a deity to a place which Yhwh has supremacy over. While interesting, the literary and poetic imagery need not imply an actual deity for the mild personification of Sheol, which is viewed both as a mere place and as personified elsewhere in Isaiah (e.g., 5:14, 28:15, 38:18; cf. 7:11, 14:11, 38:10). In Proverbs, Sheol is used in both a personified sense and as a mere place of the dead, as well (e.g., 1:12, 27:20; cf. 15:11, 24). For Prov 9, Sheol is understood as the opposite place of Wisdom, and implicitly of Yhwh. This dichotomous view is seen in Prov 15:11, "The path of life is upward for the prudent, to turn from Sheol below." For a survey of views and ANE literature on the Rephaim ‫ים(‬ ‫ָּאִ‬ ‫פ‬ ְ ‫,)ר‬ as well as Isa 14, see Philip Johnston, Shades of Sheol: Death and Afterlife in the Old Testament (Downers Grove: IVP, 2002), 127-49; William Lee Holladay, "Text, Structure, and Irony in the Poem on the Fall of the Tyrant, Isaiah 14," CBQ 61.4 (1999): 641-43;
Miriam von Nordheim-Diehl, "Wer herrscht in der Scheol?: eine Untersuchung zu Jes 14,9," BN 143 (2009): 81-91. 253 Oswalt opines that "ultimately the battle is not among various manifestations of deity" but between "Creator and creatures" since "making God in our image is the great folly of humanity" (Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah, 320).
As Prinsloo says, "Yahweh is portrayed as deus victor … he transforms hubris to humility" (Willem S. Prinsloo, "Isaiah 14:12-15 -Humiliation, Hubris, Humiliation," ZAW 93.3 (1981): 438). 255 Avriel and Amzallag note that the prophecy against the King of Babylon is called a "proverb" ‫)משל(‬ in Isa 14:4 (cf. Motyer, Sawyer, Yee, Mizrahi). The term has a number of potential connotative uses but possibly connects it with wisdom literature (Prov 1:1). This connection could imply that Prov 9 is directly paralleled or perhaps related through conceptual correspondence. Interestingly, building on the work of others, Avriel and Amzallag observe a chiasm for the poem (Isa 14:4-20), which centers on 14:12. O'Connell places its center on 14:12-14.
See Mikhal Avriel and Nissim Amzallag, "The Cryptic Meaning of the Isaiah 14 Māšāl," JBL 131 (2012): 643-62;
Robert H. O'Connell, "Isaiah 14:4b-23: Ironic Reversal through Concentric Structure and Mythic Allusion," VT 38.4 (1988): 406-18;
Gale A. Yee, "The Anatomy of Biblical Parody: The Dirge Form in 2 Samuel 1 and Isaiah 14," CBQ 50.4 (1988): 565-86; Noam Mizrahi, "The Textual History and Literary Background of Isa 14,4," ZAW 125.3 (2013): 433-47;
John F. A. Sawyer, Isaiah (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986), 100; Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah, 142. number of key places (e.g., Exod 13:21, 32:34; Prov 6:22; Neh 9:12, 19). 17
Likewise, the promise to give "rest" ‫)נוח(‬ does not seem to fit in 33:14 and has no clear referent or purpose in the broader context. 18 The only use of "rest" in Exodus (or Genesis) is with the Decalogue's prescription for Sabbath (Exod 20:11, 23:12). While the root ‫נוח‬ is not found in the sense of "give rest/peace" elsewhere in Exodus, it does occur in Deuteronomic texts (Deut 3:20, 5:14, 12:10, 25:19; cf. Josh 1:13, 15, 21:44, 22:4, 23:1; 2 Sam 7:1, 11; 1 Kgs 5:18). 19 Additionally, if the use of ‫נוח‬ is original, it would be the only place "rest" was promised in the singular "to you" ‫ְָּך(‬ ‫.)ל‬ 20 But if the phrase was originally "I will lead you," then the singular would fit the context, of course, implying God's agreement to lead Moses. To further understand Yhwh's first response to Moses, the context provides a clarifying parallel. God's affirmation of his presence and guidance in 33:14 mirrors his own command to Moses in 32:34. ‫ל‬ ‫אֶ‬ ‫ָם‬ ‫ע‬ ‫ת-הָ‬ ‫אֶ‬ ‫ה‬ ‫חֵּ‬ ‫נְ‬ ‫ְֵּך‬ ‫ל‬ ‫ה‬ ‫ַתָ‬ ‫ע‬ ‫וְ‬ ‫ְָך‬ ‫ל‬ ‫י‬ ‫תִ‬ ְ ‫ר‬ ‫בַ‬ ‫ר-דִ‬ ‫ֲשֶ‬ ‫א‬ ‫ֶיָך‬ ‫ָנ‬ ‫פ‬ ‫לְ‬ ‫ְֵּך‬ ‫ֵּל‬ ‫י‬ ‫י‬ ‫כִ‬ ‫אָ‬ ‫לְ‬ ‫מַ‬ ‫ֵּה‬ ‫נ‬ ‫הִ‬ And now, Go, lead the people of which I spoke to you; behold, my messenger will go before you.
Propp notes the possibility of ‫נחה‬ and the potential connection with 13:21 but does not pursue the option or provide any reasoning (Propp, Exodus 19-40, 604). 18 Of the thirty-three occurrences of ‫נוח‬ in the Torah, the lexeme occurs 25x in Gen-Num. However, it is only used in the sense of 'rest/peace' twice, both of which are for the 'Sabbath' command (Exod 20:11, 23:12). The lexeme occurs 7x in Deut, four of them used in the sense of 'rest/peace,' in particular 'rest from enemies.' The Deuteronomic idea is then echoed often throughout the prophets and writings. Irwin similarly agrees that "peace" does not fit the context. See William H. Irwin, "The Course of the Dialogue between Moses and Yhwh in Exodus 33:12-17," CBQ 59.4 (1997): 631. 19 Propp presumes the meaning "rest" which he takes to mean "I will appease you." He bases this largely on the usage in "Deuteronomi(ist)ic literature" (Propp, Exodus 19-40, 604).
Alternatively, Fretheim, among others, has understood this to mean that God's presence will leave but he will still give "rest" to Moses (Fretheim, Exodus, 297). people? In 33:19, Yhwh informs Moses of his nature by declaring that he shows "mercy" ‫)רחם(‬ and "grace" ‫)חנן(‬ to whomever he wills. Surprisingly, this is the first revelatory use of these terms explicitly ascribed to Yhwh's action or character in the Torah. The only earlier occurrences are merely indirect blessings between people (Gen 33:5, 11, 42:21, 43:14, 29). 30
As Yhwh explained to Moses prior, he had been known as powerful in past times, the El-Shaddai (e.g., Exod 6:3), but was progressively revealing his nature, particularly in his covenant relationship with Israel. 31 To better understand Moses' request in context, it is important to note that it is progressively linked in 33:13 and 18. He says to Yhwh, "Make known ‫)ידע(‬ to me your way ‫)דרך(‬ and I will know ‫)ידע(‬ you … Show ‫)ראה(‬ me your glory ‫".)כבד(‬ The Lord responds to the first with, "My presence will go and I will lead you" (33:14). This strange response to Moses' request seems to be at best a partial answer or perhaps a deflection to Moses' concern regarding God's earlier command. 32 However, 33:18 seems to imply Moses was not fully satisfied with the answer he received in 33:14, likely signaling he had more in mind with the first request. So, Moses rephrases the request (33:18). To this, Yhwh gives a more complete and appropriate answer to satisfy Moses. The dialogue then transitions into the famous historical narrative describing the "name" theophany episode (33:19-34:7; cf. Num 14:18; Deut 5:9-10; Jer 39:11; 32:18-19, 46:28, 49:12; Joel 2:13; Jon 4:2; Mic 7:18-20; Nah 1:2; Ps 86:15, 103:8, 17, 145:8; 30 The nominal form ‫ן‬ ‫חֵ‬ occurs almost exclusively in the idiomatic stock phrase "favor in the eyes of" several times in the Torah, both for people and God (Gen 6:8, 18:3, 19:19, 30:27, 32:6, 33:8, 10, 15, 34:11, 39:4, 21, 47:29, 50:4; Exod 3:21, 11:3, 12:36, 33:12, 13, 16, 17, 34:9; Num 11:11, 15, 32:5; Deut 24:1). While the idea of "favor" from God was presumed, Moses was not sure if this was indeed true of his nature or ways. 31 On this point, Propp discusses that the term "way" may have derived from Ugaritic implying God's "power," equivalent to ‫כח‬ (Deut 4:37). Although this connotation may subtly underly the ambiguous request, Yhwh's own response provides the narrator's intent for the reader. See Propp, Exodus 19-40, 603. 32 Irwin proposes that the strange mismatched requests and responses are a literary technique he calls "delayed response." In his view, the "two currents discernable" are an "ironic playfulness" (Irwin, "The Course of the Dialogue between Moses and Yhwh in Exodus 33:12-17," 633).
See John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 62-63, 64, 66.
Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought (2018), 62.
Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought (2018), 66.
Martha Tobi Roth and Harry A. Hoffner, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, ed. Piotr Michalowski, 2nd ed., WAW 6 (Atlanta: Scholars, 1997), 80; Hays, Hidden Riches, 121-45.
See Gordon J. Wenham, "The Gap between Law and Ethics in the Bible," JJS 48.1 (1997): 27; Robert R. Wilson, "Approaches to Old Testament Ethics," in Canon, Theology, and Old Testament Interpretation: Essays in Honor of Brevard S Childs (Philadelphia, 1988), 67; Esias E. Meyer, "The Dark Side of the Imitatio Dei. Why Imitating the God of the Holiness Code Is Not Always a Good Thing," OTE 22.2 (2009): 374; Howard Kreisel, "Imitatio Dei in Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed," AJS Review 19.2 (1994): 206; John G. Gammie, Holiness in Israel, OBT (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989), 34; Eryl W. Davies, "Walking in God's Ways: The Concept of Imitatio Dei in the Old Testament," in In Search of True Wisdom (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999), 101; Samson Raphael Hirsch, The Pentateuch, trans. Isaac Levy, 2nd ed. (London: Judaica, 1962), 3:499-500;
Baruch A. Levine, Leviticus: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, The JPS Torah Commentary (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989), 125. 23 Walton and Walton, Lost World of the Torah, 54-55; John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible, 1st ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 110, 311. In his earlier work, he endorsed the notion of imitating God's holiness, though he seems to have evolved on the issue.
Esias E. Meyer, "When Synchrony Overtakes Diachrony: Perspectives on the Relationship between the Deuteronomic Code and the Holiness Code," OTE 30.3 (2017): 754-55; John E. Hartley, Leviticus, WBC 4 (Dallas: Word Books, 1992), 311; Gordon J. Wenham, The Book of Leviticus, NICOT (Eerdmans, 1979), 264.
Hartley, Leviticus, 309-12.
Meyer, "When Synchrony Overtakes Diachrony," 757; Jo Bailey Wells, God's Holy People: A Theme in Biblical Theology, JSOTSup 305 (Sheffield: T&T Clark, 2000), 93. Meyer notes that in Leviticus there is an impetus toward being holy while Deuteronomy begins with the idea of a "holy nation." 28 The we-qatal can imply the future tense or an imperfect aspect. Waltke and O'Connor note, "Leviticus exhibits a high number [of we-qatal] because it contains many prescriptions." They refer to the form's time-oriented
See J. Andrew Dearman, The Book of Hosea, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010), 3-5;
Francis I. Andersen and David Noel Freedman, eds., Hosea: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 24 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1980), 31-39, 317; Hans Walter Wolff, Hosea: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Hosea, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974), xxi-xxiii.
2 Stuart says that knowledge of God is critical to Hosea and "represents the essence of the covenant relationship" (Douglas K. Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, WBC 31 (Waco: Word Books, 1987), 75).
Andersen and Freedman, Hosea, 319.
John L. McKenzie, "Knowledge of God in Hosea," JBL 74.1 (1955): 23.
5 For discussions of the complex literary and metaphorical aspects in Hosea, see Allan Rosengren, "Knowledge of God According to Hosea the Ripper: The Interlacing of Theology and Social Ideology in Hosea 2," SJOT 23.1 (2009): 122-23;
Ehud Ben Zvi, "Reading Hosea and Imagining YHWH," HBT 30.1 (2008): 43-57;
Yvonne Sherwood, The Prostitute and the Prophet: Hosea's Marriage in Literary-Theoretical Perspective, JSOTSup 212 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996), 134, 307.
Ben Zvi, "Reading Hosea and Imagining YHWH," 47-48; Dearman, Book of Hosea, 56. personally as a mother of the collective people. This naturally implies that Yhwh is their father (e.g., 1:10, 11:1), though tenuous in their legitimacy (1:2). Likewise, literal adultery and prostitution, embodied by Hosea's wife, are meant to metaphorically represent Israel's disregard for Yhwh's covenant and even idolatrous, pagan practices (e.g., 1:2-3, 2:5, 16, 3:1). 7 The latter half of this prophecy is built on the imagery of Hosea's children and their mixed heritage (1:10- 11, 2:4-5, 5:7). Despite the desecration of Israel and the impending musar (5:2, 10:10), they will be redeemed and once again know only Yhwh (13:4) and do so according to his torah way (2:19-20). Knowing God As mentioned, the language of knowing God is a complex metaphor in Hosea. The terms "to know" ‫)ידע(‬ and "knowledge" ‫)דעת(‬ appear collectively twenty times in the book. 8 The range of connotations includes sexual, informational, relational, personal, and covenantal. 9 It is difficult to fully parse the overlap between the uses in Hosea's account, which is perhaps an intentional rhetorical function for the reader. To better understand the implications and interpretation of the idea, several key passages will be examined (2:19-20, 4:1-6, 5:4-6, 6:3-6, 8:1-2, 13:4-5, 14:9). Each passage interweaves the central idea of knowing God with what that entails. In other words, if one does indeed know God that person will reflect him and his ways. 7 For a discussion on the use of ‫ידע‬ or "know" in treaty language in the ANE and biblical literature, see
Herbert B. Huffmon, "The Treaty Background of Hebrew Yāda'," BASOR.181 (1966): 31-37.
‫)ידע(‬ Hos 2:10, 22, 5:3, 4, 9, 6:3, 7:9, 8:2, 4, 9:7, 11:3, 13:4, 5, 14:10; ‫)דעת(‬ Hos 4:1, 6, 6:6.
M. Douglas Carew, "To Know and Not to Know: Hosea's Know/Ledge in Discourse Perspective" (Trinity International University, PhD diss., 2000), iv. destroyed from lack of the knowledge. Because you rejected the knowledge, I will reject you from being a priest to me. You forgot the torah of your God; I too will forget your sons." The examination of Hosea is especially appropriate in light of its overlap with Prov 2:5. 22
Thus, understanding the phrase "knowledge of God" in the prophet's usage will better coordinate its potential meaning or conceptual range for Proverbs. As already observed, the notion of knowing Yhwh in Hosea is a complex reality. For the prophet, the first three chapters present a poignant metaphor and prophecy of Israel's relationship with Yhwh, embodied in Hosea's own marital strife. Beginning in chapter four, however, the book takes a turn. 23 It is no longer a mere martial analogy but utilizes a more typical prophetic tone and structure, found in many other places (e.g., 2 Kgs 7:1; Isa 1:10; Jer 2:4; Ezek 13:2; Am 3:1; 2 Chron 18:18). 24
Although Hos 1-3 was primarily concerned with the imagery of fornication as pagan worship, Hos 4 picks up on the essence of 2:19-20. The prophet claims, "There is no knowledge of God in the land" (4:1). 25 The immediate and necessary question is what does this mean or imply? In context, the phrase is placed in parallel or sequence with several character qualities and ethical practices. A lack of ‫ים‬ ‫ֱֹלהִ‬ ‫א‬ ‫ַת‬ ‫ע‬ ‫דַ‬ is paralleled directly with a lack of faithfulness ‫)אמת(‬ and steadfast love ‫)חסד(‬ (cf. Ps 25:10). 26
Furthermore, the phrase is equated in the following 22 McKenzie discusses the essence of the phrase and its variations. Drawing from Eichrodt, he says, "[It] is not the reflective consideration and theoretical knowledge of the divine will, but an acceptance of the revealed divine essence and will in its proper spiritual being which is seen as penetrated and determined by the divine reality." In context of his historical evaluation, he intends to differentiate biblical knowledge of God from mere philosophy, implying a covenantal and spiritual aspect. In other words, it is not simply cognitive information. See McKenzie, "Knowledge of God in Hosea," 22-23, 27; Walther Eichrodt, Theologie des Alten Testaments (Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1948), 178.
Dearman, Book of Hosea, 145.
John Goldingay, "Hosea 4 and 11, and the Structure of Hosea," TynBul 71.2 (2020): 184-85; MacIntosh, Hosea, 128. 25 Freedman and Andersen view this passage against the eschatological, parallel antithesis in Isa 11:9, "The earth will be filled with the knowledge of Yhwh" (Andersen and Freedman, Hosea, 334).
Dearman comments on this passage saying, "The charge is that among the people of God there is no conduct or character in accord with God's revealed will and consistent with his character. Loving-kindness and verse with cursing ‫,)אלה(‬ deception ‫,)כחש(‬ murder ‫,)רצח(‬ theft ‫,)גנב(‬ adultery ( ‫,)נאף‬ and bloodshed ‫.)דמים(‬ While the first two are against Yhwh's personal character, the secondary group is explicitly in violation of the Torah and God's covenantal expectations. 27 In interpreting the meaning, one option is to see the phrase "knowledge of God" as merely one of the aberrations, though distinct and isolated from the others mentioned. In this view, it is not possible to explicate any particular meaning from the phrase. However, as seen in 2:20, knowing Yhwh was already set in parallel with two of God's character qualities, "steadfast love" and "faithfulness." 28 While the occurrence of "know" in 2:20 was in the verbal form, the nominal form in 4:1 likely implies an objective genitive relationship for the Hebrew construct phrase, paralleling the direct object relationship from earlier. 29 In other words, the "knowledge of God" implies "one who knows God," God being the implicit direct object. 30 Such a view would be against a mere informational or source view for the function of this construct. 31 As Freedman and Andersen rightly commented, faithfulness are a recognized word pair in ancient Israel. The word pair typically describes attributes of YHWH" (Dearman, Book of Hosea, 147).
Dearman, Book of Hosea, 150-51; MacIntosh, Hosea, 130; Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 75; Andersen and Freedman, Hosea, 337; Carew, "To Know or Not to Know," 80.
Here, Macintosh rightly sees the connection between these passages, acknowledging the moral and covenantal implications (MacIntosh, Hosea, 128; Wolff, Hosea, 67).
Carew uses "subjective" to mean personal but also for subjective genitive with Yhwh as the giver of knowledge. Likewise, he uses "objective" to mean an external or concrete thing, implying mere cognitive information. The use of "objective" in this study intends the grammatical function similar to those phrases which utilize the ‫את‬ as a direct object marker. Carew does not accept the objective genitive category for the phrase, though it seems he means in the sense of content rather than syntactical grammar. The verbal phrases in 2:20 and 6:3 place Yhwh in the objective position utilizing the ‫,את‬ which Carew and most others see as related to 4:1 and 6:6. For a discussion on the debates regarding this grammatical feature, see Carew, "To Know or Not to Know," 73-74, 79, 83-84.
Bruce K. Waltke and M. O'Connor, An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 146-47.
31 Wolff rightly suggests a web of connections between this use of "knowledge" with the other significant occurrences, e.g., 2:20, 6:6. However, he makes a confused statement regarding the phrase and this verse, "'Knowledge of God' is not a second, different kind of 'religious' sphere in addition to the 'ethical' … the phrase Continuing the indictment from the previous chapter, 39 Hosea reiterates the problem in Israel as both pagan practices and unethical behavior. In a unique occurrence, Hosea says that Yhwh "knows" Ephraim. While on the surface this may seem like a relational use, the parallel line indicates that "Israel is not hidden" (5:3). So, the parallel line clarifies that Yhwh knows the sin and deviations of Ephraim and Israel. Thus, he declares that "they do not know Yhwh" because "the spirit of prostitution is within them" (5:4; cf. 4:12). 40 It is important to note the literary semantic play by Hosea and God in these few verses. God knows them, though only in the sense of information regarding their sin rather than in the sense of covenantal relationship as seen elsewhere in Hosea. Conversely, Israel and Ephraim do not know Yhwh, likely in the relational and covenantal sense. 41 It would seem their own lack of knowledge led them to project ignorance on God, as though he did not see the truth of their lives. 42 This deluded projection is similar to the charge found in Ps 94:7, "They slay the widow and sojourner and they murder the fatherless. But they say, 'Yah does not see and the God of Jacob does not understand.'" To this foolish notion, Hosea clarifies that although they have separated themselves from God's covenant, they cannot escape his justice. Several verses later, Hosea indicts his audience for their unethical, anti-torah practices such as moving a boundary marker (5:10), again an injustice in direct violation of Torah (Deut 19:14; cf. 27:17; Job 24:2; Prov 22:28). In fact, their lack of knowledge will not only result in musar (5:2; cf. Prov 3:11-12) but will prevent them from returning to or finding Yhwh (cf. Isa 39 Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 90.
Freedman and Andersen suggest that "spirit of prostitution" is an explicit reference to rival gods, which necessarily creates ignorance of the Lord (Andersen and Freedman, Hosea, 391).
Dearman, Book of Hosea, 174.
Cf. Isa 29:15; Ezek 8:12, 9:9; Ps 10:11, 59:7; 64:5, 73:11, 94:7; Job 22:13. way. 49
Similarly, here, the phrase is placed alongside a covenantal character quality of God. 50 The parallel structure of the verse implies that the head verb "I delight" applies also to the second line. Likewise, the term "steadfast love" is paralleled with "knowledge of God." Finally, the contrasted element is synonymously paralleled between "sacrifice" and "burnt offerings." Although parallelism is often difficult to identify, the prophet provides a fairly clear example of incomplete synonymous parallelism. The comparison of "steadfast love" and "knowledge of God" is of particular importance since the same two terms appear together in 4:1, 51 along with a similar phrase in 2:19. Understanding the network of phrases together, it becomes apparent that to "know God" it is not only necessary to abandon other gods but also to live in the way of God and to imitate his character. 52 Mere cultic obedience is not sufficient, 53 as it was expressed to Saul three centuries prior (1 Sam 15:22). 54 Knowing God is a complex reality that necessitates personal, ethical, covenantal, and theological aspects. Immediately after condemning Israel's sacrifice -namely sacrifice void of knowledge - he compares their treachery to Adam's breaking of the covenant (6:7). 55 Although the text does not provide much explanation for mentioning Adam, it perhaps points to a few critical 49 Andersen and Freedman, Hosea, 430. 50 MacIntosh equates the phrase with "Yahweh's ethical nature" along with "moral integrity" and "decency" (MacIntosh, Hosea, 234-35).
Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 110. 52 Against previous statements, Wolff comments, "The concept of ‫חסד‬ indicates how completely the right covenant relationship with God forms the basis of the Old Testament ethos (cf. v 4 and 4:1f). The parallel concept ‫אלהים‬ ‫דעת‬ shows that this relationship to God -indeed, this communion … is the foundation of everything. … To know him is to experience him and to live in communion with him in trust and obedience. For the Hebrew thought, these existential components are inseparably bound to the cognitive functions" (Wolff, Hosea, 120).
MacIntosh, Hosea, 188. 54 Andersen and Freedman, Hosea, 431.
Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 111. 13:5, the emphasis had been on the people knowing God. Here, the focus turns to God's knowledge of the people. 61 Thus, the marital metaphor as a covenant from Hos 1-3 returns to the Lord's appeal to Israel. 62 From a theological perspective, if God is omniscient then his knowledge of Israel cannot simply mean information here (cf. Jer 23:24). Rather, in the vein of marriage, Yhwh's knowledge of Israel is covenantal and personal. For genuine knowledge of this kind, however, they needed to be like God in order to have "a God so near" (Deut 4:7). Apart from the torah way, it was not only that Israel did not know God but that God could not know them. Relational knowledge is inherently bidirectional. One cannot say they have relational knowledge of a tree or rock, due to a lack of relational capacity. Similarly, Israel had abdicated their relational capacity to know God, and conversely for God to know them, by seeking other gods and by refusing to walk in the way of Yhwh. His desire for them to reflect his ways was inherent to his desire for them to know him and vice versa. Hosea 14:9 [10]
"Who is wise, he will understand these things, discerning, he will know them: upright are the ways of Yhwh, the righteous will walk in them but rebels will stumble in them." Just as the Torah had predicted (e.g., Deut 8:12-14, 32:15), once Israel entered the land, they no longer felt a need for God. They clearly abandoned him and his covenant way (Hos 13:6). In spite of this rebellion, the prophet concludes on a high note with a future restoration. There is a promise for restoration, security, and blessing (14:3-7). This blessing, though, is part response from man in gratitude" (Peter C. Craigie, The Book of Deuteronomy, NICOT (Eerdmans, 1976), 149-50;
Dearman, Book of Hosea, 380).
Dearman rejects the textual emendation from the LXX and Syr which replace "know" with "shepherd" on the grounds that ‫ידע‬ is an important motif in Hosea. This would also be strengthened by the parallel passages. See Dearman, Book of Hosea, 321-22.
Dearman, Book of Hosea, 321.
not in oneself, but in God." 12 Yet, the wise had become fools due to their secular view of success and wisdom along with their dissociation from walking in the torah way of Yhwh. 13 Earlier in 4:22, he states, "My people are foolish for they do not know me. They are sons of stupidity and have no understanding. They are wise for evil and do not know good." Holladay captures the underlying truth from Jeremiah, "To know Yahweh is to know how to do good: ethical decisions flow from the knowledge of Yahweh. It is a nice anticipation of Augustine's maxim, 'Dilige, et quod vis fac' ['Love (God), and do what you like]." 14 But, Judah did not know God and their ways were proof. So, in response, Jeremiah goes on to declare, "Cursed is the man whose trust is in humanity … Blessed is the man who trusts ( ‫)בטח‬ in Yhwh and his security ‫)מבטח(‬ is Yhwh" (17:5, 7). Jeremiah's rebuke was a wise word reflecting the proverbial command, "Trust ‫)בטח(‬ in Yhwh with all your heart … Know him with all your ways … Do not be wise in your own eyes" (Prov 3:5, 6, 7). In order to correct their blind and misguided foolishness, Jeremiah provides "a succinct summary of the religion of Israel at its highest." 15 Clarifying God's primary desire, he says, "The one who boasts shall boast in understanding and knowing me. For I am Yhwh, one who does steadfast love, justice, and righteousness in the land. For in these things, I delight" (9:24[23]; cf. Mic 7:18). 16 The prophet brings together an important insight in this verse. God himself does the theological concept, and it runs throughout the book" (Tremper Longman III, Proverbs, BCOTWP (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 57-58).
Longman, The Fear of the Lord Is Wisdom, 72.
Longman, The Fear of the Lord Is Wisdom, 73.
Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 163.
Thompson, Book of Jeremiah, 321. 16 This triad is found together in some variation only a few times (Ps 33:5, 89:14; Isa 16:5; Jer 9:24; Hos 2:19). However, Holladay notes that the three appear quite often in paired combinations. In his view, the verb ‫עשה‬ actually implies Yhwh "creates" these qualities in the earth which he himself does, indicating his universal authority and goodness. Brueggemann believes Jeremiah is dependent on Hosea or at least his prophetic tradition, calling But what was the cause for Judah's impending discipline? The prophet inveighs against their dual sin, "They abandoned the covenant of Yhwh their God and they worshiped and served other gods" (Jer 22:9; cf. Deut 29:25-26). 23 Reiterating his message from earlier, Jeremiah gives another conditional call for repentance, again rooted in the Torah, "Do justice and righteousness, deliver the robbed from the hand of the oppressor; you must not oppress the sojourner, fatherless, or widow. You must not do violence or shed innocent blood in this place" (Jer 22:3-4; cf. Deut 10:17-19). 24 The people, though especially the leaders, had forsaken God's covenant ways. 25 They were not reflecting his character and nature but were in direct defiance to him and his torah. Because of this disobedience, Jeremiah gives a prophetic warning against Shallum (Jehoahaz; cf. 1 Chr 3:15) and Jehoiakim, who had not walked in the way of their father Josiah (2 Kgs 23:32, 37). Both kings and sons of Josiah are indicted for their departure from Josiah and ultimately the way of Yhwh.
Strangely, most scholars myopically focus on the idolatrous aspect of Jeremiah's indictment. While idolatry is certainly an aspect, the covenantal component is much more comprehensive. Although Jeremiah seems to echo Deut 29:25-26, the more common refrain is found in Deut 28:9 and 14, part of the blessing pronouncement, which states, "Yhwh will establish you for himself, a holy people, as was sworn to you, if you will keep the commands of Yhwh your God and walk in his ways. … and if you do not turn from all the words which I commanded you today, right or left, to go after other gods to serve them." This passage is reflected elsewhere as well (e.g., 11:28). Israel was not only to avoid idolatry but to walk in all the ways of Yhwh. For a myopic treatment of Jer 22:9, see Carroll, Jeremiah, 421; Walter Brueggemann, To Pluck up, to Tear down: A Commentary on the Book of Jeremiah 1-25, ITC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 190; Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 586; Thompson, Book of Jeremiah, 475.
Thompson, Book of Jeremiah, 473-74.
25 Brueggemann uses Mendenhall's "two histories" paradigm to understand the approach of Jeremiah. Regarding the prophet's approach, he states, "It is history with a covenant-making God that is the only history. Every other history is an illusion and a deception." This assertion is based on Mendenhall's dichotomy between the "Mosaic-covenantal" view of history versus the "Davidic-royal" view of history among Judahites in Jeremiah's time. The royal view according to Mendenhall was a self-interested, "paganization of Israel" due to its accommodation to the royal practices and intentions of the surrounding ANE nations. In Brueggemann's view, this false view of the Davidic throne was largely propagated by the self-interested nobility class consisting of sages, prophets, priests, etc. See Brueggemann, "The Epistemological Crisis of Israel's Two Histories," 86-87, 91; George E. Mendenhall, "The Monarchy," Int 29.2 (1975): 160. 'Woe to the one who builds his house without righteousness and his upper rooms without justice. He works with his neighbor freely and he does not give him his wage (cf. Prov 3:27-29). … Are you a king because you compete in cedar? Did not your father eat and drink and make justice and righteousness then it was well for him? He judged the case of the afflicted and poor then it was well. Is this not to know me?' declares Yhwh. 'Yet, your eyes and heart are only for profit and shedding innocent blood and oppression and crushing' (Jer 22:13-17; cf. Prov 1:11, 19, 6:17).
As seen in this passage, the prophet contends against their self-interested desires. 26 Primarily, these wicked kings had failed to possess the desires of God and to express his ways. Yhwh was the righteous king (e.g., Jer 23:6) who at the behest of Israel had relinquished to Saul and the line of David his direct rule. 27 Yet, it was always the case that they were to rule not as kings but as a "prince" (1 Sam 9:16, 10:1, 13:14; cf. Judg 8:23) under the great king, Yhwh (cf. 1
Sam 8:7). As brothers among the people (Deut 17:20), they were to be exemplars of the torah way of Yhwh (Jer 33:15-22; cf. Isa 11:2-5; Prov 16:1-15). 28 Regarding the proper Davidic paradigm, Laniak rightly notes, "A good shepherd is one who sees what the Owner sees and does what the Owner does. He is a follower before he is a leader. He is a leader because he is a follower. The shepherds whom God judges in the Bible are those who forget that the people in their care are not their own." 29 Jeremiah lamented that the leaders of his day had failed, sharply contrasting them with God's own love and care for the vulnerable (Deut 10:17-19). 30 In their failure to uphold the Torah, they not only broke covenant but as a result did not know God. A 26 Brueggemann, To Pluck up, to Tear Down, 193.
Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 615.
Dali Luo, "Proverbs 16:1-15: An Invitation to Adopt the Royal Way of Life" (Trinity International University, PhD diss., 2010);
Thompson, Book of Jeremiah, 473-74.
Laniak, Shepherds after My Own Heart, 22.
Cf. Thompson, Book of Jeremiah, 278.
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