La mujer en algunas literaturas occidentales: una aproximación bibliográfica (original) (raw)
Dilemas Contemporáneos: Educación, Política y Valores, 2019
RESUMEN. El propósito del presente estudio es investigar cómo están representadas las mujeres en los cuentos de los escritores paquistaníes. La investigación actual también explora si el género del autor tiene alguna influencia sobre el vocabulario que usa. El estudio propuesto es de naturaleza cualitativa. Los resultados también revelaron que los escritores masculinos pakistaníes son más sexistas en su vocabulario para retratar personajes femeninos en comparación con los escritores femeninos. Los futuros investigadores pueden explorar los mismos datos siguiendo los dos restantes: niveles sentenciales y discursivos del modelo de Mills (1995). El presente estudio también puede extenderse para comparar dos tipos de género como escritores por parte de los futuros investigadores.
2019
Las escritoras son una especie extraña, difícil de visibilizar. Omitidas de las posiciones centrales del canon, desplazadas hasta sus márgenes o sencillamente borradas, su recuperación para la historia pasa primero por la obtención de datos. Sin embargo, en su aparente excepcionalidad y aislamiento, poco significan si no podemos articularlos como parte de un panorama cultural que les dé coherencia. Si cuando disponemos de información abundante, los géneros, estilos, temas, ediciones, mecenazgos son algunos de los elementos tradicionales en la historia literaria que nos permiten crear sentido, cuando estamos ante una escasez mezquina, es necesario aceptar que después de la exhumación trabajosa, la proximidad cronológica y geográfica, el ambiente o los usos de la época forman parte imprescindible de su interpretación. Como en la arqueología, son los vestigios los que sirven para dibujar el mapa de lo que pudo ser, trazando líneas sutiles que alguna vez los unieron.
20 años de Historia de las Mujeres. Perspectivas internacionales
Arenal Revista De Historia De Las Mujeres, 2013
RESUMEN Los desafíos a los que ha hecho frente la historia de las mujeres en el mundo en los últimos veinte años es abordada en este artículo por tres grandes y reconocidas historiadoras. Se inicia con un análisis sobre los debates existentes en la historia de las mujeres en los años en los que nació la revista Arenal, especialmente la controversia en torno al potencial inspirador de la categoría "género". Desde entonces la historia de las mujeres ha crecido exponencialmente en trabajos y enfoques analíticos, como se pone de relieve en los estudios específicos sobre dos áreas del planeta: Noruega y Brasil.
Women in Antiquity: An Annotated Bibliography
The Classical World, 1977
Women in Antiquity the present and on future reforms. The future, and what we can make of it, is rightly our major concern, but it should not obscure the lesson of the old truism, that you can't tell where you're going if you don't know where you've been. To know what we can achieve in the future we must come to grips with what we have been able to achieve in the past, and in our society, so strongly influenced by the Greeks and Romans, an understanding of woman's place amongst them takes on special significance. One of the first questions the feminist must deal with is whether or not woman has always been subject to patriarchal authority. Certainly no matriarchy-or even a state of true equality-has ever existed in recorded history, but of the dim ages of prehistory no one can be certain. Early civilizations preceded the classical Greeks and Romans: mysterious cultures of Minoans, Etruscans, and others, whose artifacts suggest a higher position for women than in later times. The Lycians of Asia Minor, for example, traced their descent on their mother's side, as Herodotus reports, calling each other by their mother's name. 2 The matronymic was prominent also among the Etruscans, and, as one scholar has noted, "Etruscan civilization was an archaic civilization. Its feminism, strange as it may seem to us, is not so much a recent conquest as a distant survival threatened by Graeco-Roman pressures; it recalls in many respects the Crete of Ariadne and the paintings of Cnossos. 11 3 Many prominent scholars (notably J. J. Bachofen, Robert Briffault, and Jane Ellen Harrison) have concluded from their extensive studies of archaeology and myth that these first civilizations were actually matriarchal but were overwhelmed and destroyed by a patriarchal revolution sometime before the dawn of history. Their conclusions, more recently espoused by the in-Women in Antiquity Greek literature intervenes a gap of centuries, during which the position of women went into a sharp decline, apparently reaching its lowest point in fifth-century Athens. Wome n, especially married women, vanish from Greek history. In Herodotus woman is everywhere, so much so that a prominent scholar once summarized his approach to history as "cherchez la femme et n' oubliez pas le Dieu. 11 6 But in Thucydides woman is nowhere to be seen. His standard of feminine excellence is summed up in the words he attribute s to Pericles in his famous funeral oration: "Great will b e your glory in not falling short of your natural character; and greatest will be hers who is least talked of among the men whether for good or for bad. 11 7 This glory the Athenia n woman certainly attained, for, though Athens was blessed with more great thinkers, artists, and writers than a ny othe r single city in history, "not one Athenian woman ever a tta ined to the slightest distinction in any one department of lite rature, art, or science. 11 8 That the Greek woman was not deficient in ability is made clear by the achievements of the women poets who lived at an earlier time. Pre-eminent among these was, of course, Sappho, one of the greatest lyric poets of all time , who apparently ran some sort of salon or boarding s chool for young girls on the island of Lesbos around 600 B. C. Of the nine books of her poems which the Alexandrian Libra r y once possessed, a wretchedly small number of frag me nts-r emain; only two poems are in a state even approaching completeness. Yet her genius shines through them so brightly that her position remains unchallenged. Plato hailed her as the Tenth Muse, and C. M. Bowra summed up his views as follows: Free in body and free to possess a mind, they were persons as well as women, and it was with them that the great men of Athens discussed their pursuits and shared their most profound meditations. History has preserved the names of many of them: Leontium, Phryne, Lais, Diotima, and above all Aspasia, the brilliant and highly cultured woman whom Pericles divorced his legal wife to live with until his death, with Women in Antiquity Agnodice, the doctor, and the philosophers Hipparchia, Melissa, Myia, Perictione, Phintys, and Theano. But by this time the democratic glories of Athens were gone, and the empire of Alexander had splintered into several monarchies and city-states. What brought about the decline? More than one author has gone so far as to agree with F. A. Wright that "the Greek world perished from one major cause, a low ideal of womanhood and a degradation of women which found expression both in literature and in social life"; thes e were "the canker-spots which, left unhealed, brought about the decay first of Athens and then of Greece. 11 15 Such, then, was the state of women in Athens, but Athens was not all of Greece. To the north and west dwelt peoples whose women still retained privileges surviving from earlier times. None, though, went quite so far as Sparta. Spartan women came the closest to having real equality of any women in history. They could inherit and bequeath property, received the same physical training as men, even wrestled with them, and were not limited to one man but could indulge in free intercourse outside the bonds of marriage without the stigma of immorality. The goal in militaristic Sparta was to breed healthy children who would become good Spartan soldiers, and whatever actions served this end were permissible. As the men were often off at war, the women generally ran the estates and had a strong voice in government. Their freedom naturally excited th e contempt of the Athenians, who mocked the Spartans for being ruled by their women. "Yes, " replied Gorgo, the Spartan heroine, "but then we are the only ones who still bring men into the world. 11 16 Spartan women were proud, brave, and strong, certainly, but they were not free. Along with their men they were subjected to the rigid discipline and control the Etruscan woman had so privileged a position that "it cannot be denied that Etruscan society in many respects has elements of both matriarchy and gynaecocracy. " 18 The conquering Romans, however, were firmly patriarchal. Whereas Etruscan women had their own individual first names, and Roman men were distinguished by three Women in Antiquity with her marriage to a citizen of Rome a Roman woman reached a position never attained by the women of any other nation in the ancient world. Nowhere else were women held in such high respect; nowhere else did they exert so strong and beneficent an influence. 19 Roman women were determined and spirited ladies and, by exerting constant pressure for reform, they gradually became emancipated from the fetters of ancient law and custom. Their legal status was brought into line with their social importance, until "their actual position became far better than it has ever been since, until very recent times. 112 0 When in 195 B. C. the Oppian Law was up for repeal (a stringent law which forbade women to wear jewelry or expensive clothes, or to ride in carriages in the city), the women responded to those who wanted the law retained with tactics much like those of the modern suffragettes. They canvassed for votes, surrounded the houses of their leading opponents, marched on the Senate, and demonstrated in the streets. Understandably enough, the law was repealed. Cato the Elder, an old traditionalist, was so provoked at this that he grumbled, If every married man had been concerned to ens ure that his own wife looked up to him and respected his rightful position as her husband, we should not have half this trouble with women en masse. Instead, women have become so powerful that our independence has been lost in our own home s and is now being trampled and stamped underfoot in public. We have failed to restrain them as i ndivi duals, and now they have combined to reduce us to our present panic. 21 These women were not a force to be trifled with. Roman history affords us numerous examples of exceptional power, talent, and character on the part of Roman matrons, a record all the more remarkable when compa red to that of But, even as the Roman woman's status was at its height, the dark forces of change were gathering to undermine it. A new religion, with a far different ideal of womanhood, had taken hold in the Empire. "The conversion of the Roman world to Christianity, " says one authority, "was to bring a great change in woman's status. 11 25 Indeed so, for the advances made by women under paganism were soon lost under the conquering banner of Judaeo-Christian patriarchy, as interpreted by the misogynist St. Paul. The old ways lingered on, though, for many years.