CARBON NANOTUBES (original) (raw)

Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures: New Materials for the Twenty-First Century

American Journal of Physics, 2004

Introduction 1.1 The discovery of fullerene-related carbon nanotubes 1.2 Characteristics of multiwalled nanotubes 1.3 Single-walled nanotubes 1.4 Pre-1991 evidence for carbon nanotubes 1.5 Nanotube research 1.6 Organisation of the book References 2 Synthesis: Preparation methods, growth mechanisms and processing techniques 2.1 Production of multiwalled nanotubes: non-catalytic methods 2.1.1 The arc-evaporation technique 2.1.2 The quality of nanotube samples produced by arc-evaporation 2.1.3 Safety considerations 2.1.4 Condensation of carbon vapour in the absence of an electric field 2.1.5 Pyrolytic methods 2.1.6 Electrochemical synthesis of nanotubes 2.2 Experiments on the heat treatment of fullerene soot 2.3 Catalytically produced multiwalled nanotubes 2.3.1 Background 2.3.2 Growth mechanisms of catalytically produced nanotubes 2.3.3 Synthesis of aligned nanotubes by catalysis vii 2.4 Nanotubes on TEM support grids: a word of warning 2.5 Single-walled nanotubes 2.5.1 Discovery 2.5.2 Subsequent work on single-walled tubes 2.5.3 Nanotube 'ropes' 2.6 Theories of nanotube growth 2.6.1 General comments 2.6.2 Why do tubes remain open during growth? 2.6.3 Properties of the arc plasma 2.6.4 An alternative model 2.6.5 Growth of single-walled nanotubes 2.7 Purification of multiwalled tubes 2.8 Purification of single-walled tubes 2.9 Alignment of nanotube samples 2.10 Length control of carbon nanotubes 2.11 Discussion References 3 Structure 3.1 Classification of tubular biological structures 3.2 Bonding in carbon materials 3.3 The structure of carbon nanotubes: theoretical discussion 3.3.1 Vector notation for carbon nanotubes 3.3.2 Unit cells of nanotubes 3.3.3 Multiwalled nanotubes 3.3.4 Theory of nanotube capping 3.3.5 Symmetry classification of nanotubes 3.3.6 Elbow connections, tori and coils 3.3.7 Arrays of single-walled nanotubes 3.4 The physical stability of carbon nanotubes 3.5 Experimental studies of nanotube structure: multiwalled nanotubes 3.5.1 Techniques 3.5.2 The layer structure: experimental observations 3.5.3 The layer structure: models 3.5.4 Electron diffraction 3.5.5 Plan-view imaging by HREM 3.5.6 The cross-sectional shape of multiwalled nanotubes 3.5.7 HREM studies of cap structure 3.5.8 Elbow connections and branching structures viii Contents 3.6 Experimental studies of nanotube structure: single-walled nanotubes 3.6.1 High resolution electron microscopy and electron diffraction 3.6.2 Scanning probe microscopy 3.6.3 Nanotube hoops and diameter doubling 3.7 Structure of carbon nanoparticles 3.8 Nanocones 3.9 Discussion References 4 The physics of nanotubes 4.1 Electronic properties of graphite and carbon fibres 4.1.1 Band structure of graphite 4.1.2 Transport properties of graphite, disordered carbons and carbon fibres 4.1.3 Magnetoresistance of graphite and carbon fibres 4.2 Electronic properties of nanotubes: theory 4.2.1 Band structure of single-walled tubes 4.2.2 Band structure of multiwalled tubes 4.2.3 Electron transport in nanotubes 4.2.4 Nanotube junctions 4.2.5 Electronic properties of nanotubes in a magnetic field 4.3 Electronic properties of nanotubes: experimental measurements 4.3.1 Resistivity measurements on multiwalled nanotubes 4.3.2 Resistivity measurements on single-walled nanotubes 4.3.3 Doping of nanotube bundles 4.3.4 Electron spin resonance 4.4 Magnetic properties of nanotubes 4.5 Optical properties of nanotubes 4.6 Vibrational properties of nanotubes 4.6.1 Symmetry of vibrational modes 4.6.2 Experimental IR and Raman spectra: multiwalled nanotubes 4.6.3 Experimental IR and Raman spectra: single-walled nanotubes 4.7 Electron energy loss spectroscopy of nanotubes 4.8 Nanotube field emitters 4.9 Discussion References ix Contents 5 Nanocapsules and nanotest-tubes 5.1 Metallofullerenes 5.2 Filling nanotubes and nanoparticles by arc-evaporation 5.2.1 Early work 5.2.2 Further studies 5.3 Preparation of filled nanoparticles from microporous carbon 5.4 Properties of filled nanoparticles 5.4.1 Protection from environmental degradation 5.4.2 Encapsulation of magnetic materials 5.4.3 Encapsulation of radioactive materials 5.5 Technegas 5.6 Opening and filling of nanotubes using chemical methods and capillarity 5.6.1 The work of Ajayan and Iijima 5.6.2 Selective opening using gas-phase oxidants 5.6.3 Opening by treatment with nitric acid 5.6.4 Alternative liquid-phase oxidants 5.6.5 Filling with molten materials 5.6.6 Experiments on capillarity and wetting 5.6.7 Chemistry and crystallisation in nanotubes 5.6.8 Biological molecules in nanotubes 5.7 Filling of single-walled nanotubes 5.8 Storing gases in nanotubes 5.9 Discussion References 6 The ultimate carbon fibre? The mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes 6.1 Conventional carbon fibres 6.2 Graphite whiskers 6.3 Catalytically grown carbon fibres 6.4 Mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes 6.4.1 Theoretical predictions 6.4.2 Experimental observations using TEM: qualitative 6.4.3 Experimental observations using TEM: quantitative 6.4.4 Experimental observations using scanning probe microscopy 6.5 Carbon nanotube composites 6.5.1 Introduction 6.5.2 Bonding between nanotubes and matrix x Contents 6.5.3 Aspect ratio 6.5.4 Experiments on incorporating nanotubes into a matrix 6.5.5 Applications of nanotube-containing composites 6.6 Nanotubes as tips for scanning probe microscopes 6.7 Discussion References 7 Curved crystals, inorganic fullerenes and nanorods 7.1 Chrysotile and imogolite 7.2 Inorganic fullerenes from layered metal dichalcogenides 7.2.1 Synthesis of chalcogenide fullerenes 7.2.2 Structure of chalcogenide fullerenes 7.2.3 Inorganic fullerenes as solid-state lubricants 7.3 Nanotubes and nanoparticles containing boron and nitrogen 7.3.1 Boron-carbon-nitride tubes 7.3.2 Pure boron nitride tubes and nanoparticles 7.3.3 Structure of boron nitride tubes and nanoparticles 7.4 Carbide nanorods 7.5 Discussion References 8 Carbon onions and spheroidal carbon 8.1 Carbon onions 8.1.1 Discovery 8.1.2 Ugarte's experiments: irradiation of cathodic soot 8.1.3 Production of onions from other carbons 8.1.4 The structure of carbon onions 8.1.5 Formation mechanism of carbon onions 8.1.6 Stability of carbon onions 8.1.7 Bulk synthesis of carbon onions 8.1.8 The formation of diamond inside carbon onions 8.2 Spheroidal carbon particles in soot 8.2.1 Background 8.2.2 Growth mechanisms: the traditional view 8.2.3 The icospiral growth mechanism 8.2.4 The structure of carbon black 8.3 Spherulitic graphite cast iron 8.3.1 History 8.3.2 The structure of spherulitic graphite 8.3.3 The precipitation process xi Contents 8.4 Spheroidal structures in mesophase pitch 8.5 Discussion References 9 Future directions 9.1 Towards a carbon nanotube chemistry 9.2 New all-carbon structures 9.3 Nanotubes in nanotechnology 9.4 Final thoughts References Name index Subject index xii Contents

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