Shiga Toxin Facilitates Its Retrograde Transport by Modifying Microtubule Dynamics (original) (raw)
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Retrograde Shiga toxin trafficking is regulated by ARHGAP21 and Cdc42
Molecular biology of the …, 2009
Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli remain a food-borne health threat. Shiga toxin is endocytosed by intestinal epithelial cells and transported retrogradely through the secretory pathway. It is ultimately translocated to the cytosol where it inhibits protein translation. We found that Shiga toxin transport through the secretory pathway was dependent on the cytoskeleton. Recent studies reveal that Shiga toxin activates signaling pathways that affect microtubule reassembly and dynein-dependent motility. We propose that Shiga toxin alters cytoskeletal dynamics in a way that facilitates its transport through the secretory pathway. We have now found that Rho GTPases regulate the endocytosis and retrograde motility of Shiga toxin. The expression of RhoA mutants inhibited endocytosis of Shiga toxin. Constitutively active Cdc42 or knockdown of the Cdc42specific GAP, ARHGAP21, inhibited the transport of Shiga toxin to the juxtanuclear Golgi apparatus. The ability of Shiga toxin to stimulate microtubule-based transferrin transport also required Cdc42 and ARHGAP21 function. Shiga toxin addition greatly decreases the levels of active Cdc42-GTP in an ARHGAP21-dependent manner. We conclude that ARHGAP21 and Cdc42-based signaling regulates the dynein-dependent retrograde transport of Shiga toxin to the Golgi apparatus. ‡ Present address:
2005
The Golgi complex plays a central role in glycoprotein processing and quality control of secretion in eukaryotic cells. The vertebrate Golgi complex consists, during interphase, of polarized, stacked cisternae that appose the microtubuleorganizing centre (MTOC). This central positioning might facilitate concentration of secretory cargo during transport from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through the Golgi stacks and trans-Golgi network (TGN) to post-Golgi compartments, as well as polarized secretion to establish cellular polarity, migration and other effector functions (Rios and Bornens, 2003; Warren and Shorter, 2002). Golgi positioning at the MTOC requires the integrity of microtubules (Ho et al., 1989; Rogalski and Singer, 1984) and the minus-end-directed dynein-dynactin microtubule motor complex (Burkhardt et al., 1997; Corthesy-Theulaz et al., 1992; Harada et al., 1998). Tubulovesicular clusters that emerge near exit sites from the ER recruit dynein-dynactin complexes and migra...
Shiga toxin induces tubular membrane invaginations for its uptake into cells
Nature, 2007
Clathrin seems to be dispensable for some endocytic processes and, in several instances, no cytosolic coat protein complexes could be detected at sites of membrane invagination. Hence, new principles must in these cases be invoked to account for the mechanical force driving membrane shape changes. Here we show that the Gb3 (glycolipid)-binding B-subunit of bacterial Shiga toxin induces narrow tubular membrane invaginations in human and mouse cells and model membranes. In cells, tubule occurrence increases on energy depletion and inhibition of dynamin or actin functions. Our data thus demonstrate that active cellular processes are needed for tubule scission rather than tubule formation. We conclude that the B-subunit induces lipid reorganization that favours negative membrane curvature, which drives the formation of inward membrane tubules. Our findings support a model in which the lateral growth of B-subunit-Gb3 microdomains is limited by the invagination process, which itself is regulated by membrane tension. The physical principles underlying this basic cargo-induced membrane uptake may also be relevant to other internalization processes, creating a rationale for conceptualizing the perplexing diversity of endocytic routes.
Molecular medicine reports, 2012
The Shiga toxin B-subunit (STxB), from the enteric pathogen, Shigella dysenteriae, is responsible for the attachment of its receptor, globotriaosylceramide (Gb3), and navigates the retrograde pathway from the plasma membrane to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In this study, in order to demonstrate the role of carboxyl-terminus (C-terminus/al) amino acids of the B-fragment on the retrograde transport speed and the retrograde transport pathway, STxB was modified by site-directed mutagenesis and by the addition of an amino acid tail. The results showed that when the C-terminal amino acid, arginine [Arg (R)], was mutated to serine [Ser (S)], the speed of the B-fragment transportation into the ER at 37 ˚C was slower. When an acidic amino acid tail 'glutamine (Glu)-Ser' (ES) was added to the C-terminal amino acid 'R', the B-fragment transporting speed slowed down and remained in the Golgi apparatus. Further experiments showed that the effects induced by mutations of the am...
The Journal of Cell Biology, 1998
Shiga toxin and other toxins of this family can escape the endocytic pathway and reach the Golgi apparatus. To synchronize endosome to Golgi transport, Shiga toxin B-fragment was internalized into HeLa cells at low temperatures. Under these conditions, the protein partitioned away from markers destined for the late endocytic pathway and colocalized extensively with cointernalized transferrin. Upon subsequent incubation at 37 Њ C, ultrastructural studies on cryosections failed to detect B-fragment-specific label in multivesicular or multilamellar late endosomes, suggesting that the protein bypassed the late endocytic pathway on its way to the Golgi apparatus. This hypothesis was further supported by the rapid kinetics of B-fragment transport, as determined by quantitative confocal microscopy on living cells and by B-fragment sulfation analysis, and by the observation that actindepolymerizing and pH-neutralizing drugs that modu-late vesicular transport in the late endocytic pathway had no effect on B-fragment accumulation in the Golgi apparatus. B-fragment sorting at the level of early/recycling endosomes seemed to involve vesicular coats, since brefeldin A treatment led to B-fragment accumulation in transferrin receptor-containing membrane tubules, and since B-fragment colocalized with adaptor protein type 1 clathrin coat components on early/recycling endosomes. Thus, we hypothesize that Shiga toxin B-fragment is transported directly from early/recycling endosomes to the Golgi apparatus. This pathway may also be used by cellular proteins, as deduced from our finding that TGN38 colocalized with the B-fragment on its transport from the plasma membrane to the TGN.
Shiga toxin regulates its entry in a Syk-dependent manner
Molecular biology of the cell, 2006
Shiga toxin (Stx) is composed of an A-moiety that inhibits protein synthesis after translocation into the cytosol, and a B-moiety that binds to Gb3 at the cell surface and mediates endocytosis of the toxin. After endocytosis, Stx is transported retrogradely to the endoplasmic reticulum, and then the A-fragment enters the cytosol. In this study, we have investigated whether toxin-induced signaling is involved in its entry. Stx was found to activate Syk and induce rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of several proteins, one protein being clathrin heavy chain. Toxin-induced clathrin phosphorylation required Syk activity, and in cells overexpressing Syk, a complex containing clathrin and Syk could be demonstrated. Depletion of Syk by small interfering RNA, expression of a dominant negative Syk mutant (Syk KD), or treatment with the Syk inhibitor piceatannol inhibited not only Stx-induced clathrin phosphorylation but also endocytosis of the toxin. Also, Golgi transport of Stx was inhibited un...
Membrane invagination induced by Shiga toxin B-subunit: from molecular structure to tube formation
Soft Matter, 2016
The bacterial Shiga toxin is composed of an enzymatically active A-subunit, and a receptor-binding homopentameric B-subunit (STxB) that mediates intracellular toxin trafficking. Upon STxB-mediated binding to the glycolipid globotriaosylceramide (Gb 3) at the plasma membrane of target cells, Shiga toxin is internalized by clathrin-dependent and independent endocytosis. The formation of tubular membrane invaginations is an essential step in the clathrin-independent STxB uptake process. However, the mechanism by which STxB induces these invaginations has remained unclear. Using a combination of all-atom molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo simulations we show that the molecular architecture of STxB enables the following sequence of events: The Gb 3 binding sites on STxB are arranged such that tight avidity-based binding results in a small increment of local curvature. Membrane-mediated clustering of several toxin molecules then creates a tubular membrane invagination that drives toxin entry into the cell. This mechanism requires: (1) a precise molecular architecture of the STxB binding sites; (2) a fluid bilayer in order for the tubular invagination to form. Although, STxB binding to the membrane requires specific interactions with Gb 3 lipids, our study points to a generic molecular design principle for clathrin-independent endocytosis of nanoparticles.
Shiga Toxin Uptake and Sequestration in Extracellular Vesicles Is Mediated by Its B-Subunit
Toxins
Shiga toxin (Stx)-stimulated blood cells shed extracellular vesicles (EVs) which can transfer the toxin to the kidneys and lead to hemolytic uremic syndrome. The toxin can be taken up by renal cells within EVs wherein the toxin is released, ultimately leading to cell death. The mechanism by which Stx is taken up, translocated, and sequestered in EVs was addressed in this study utilizing the B-subunit that binds to the globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) receptor. We found that Stx1B was released in EVs within minutes after stimulation of HeLa cells or red blood cells, detected by live cell imaging and flow cytometry. In the presence of Retro-2.1, an inhibitor of intracellular retrograde trafficking, a continuous release of Stx-positive EVs occurred. EVs from HeLa cells possess the Gb3 receptor on their membrane, and EVs from cells that were treated with a glycosylceramide synthase inhibitor, to reduce Gb3, bound significantly less Stx1B. Stx1B was detected both on the membrane and within th...