Knowledge-based public order policing: Principles and practice (original) (raw)
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The role of crowd theory in determining the use of force in public order policing
Social psychological research suggests that where police hold a theoretical view of the crowd in line with the 'classic' crowd psychology of Gustavé Le Bon this can lead to police practices that inadvertently escalate public disorder. This research reflects debates within the criminology literature which suggests that a primary factor governing police tactics is police knowledge. However, the existing research on the specific relationships between police theoretical knowledge of crowds and their practice towards them is limited by its reliance on post hoc data. This paper addresses this limitation by examining the role of police theoretical view of crowd psychology and their operational practice during a high risk football crowd event. The analysis supports the argument that when the police hold a view of the crowd as inherently irrational and dangerous they rely upon tactics of mass containment and dispersal. This study advances the literature by suggesting that this 'classic' theoretical view of the crowd is leading to missed opportunities for the police to develop more efficient, effective and less confrontational approaches to the management of public order during crowd events.
The Role of Police Perceptions and Practices in the Development of 'Public Disorder'
Journal of Applied Social …, 2003
Recent studies have suggested that the development of crowd conflict needs to be understood as an interaction between the crowd itself and outgroups such as the police. However, research on the role of police perceptions and practices has up till now been fragmentary and limited by reliance on small samples. The present paper describes a questionnaire survey in which 80 police officers from two UK forces were asked about their perceptions of football and demonstrating crowds, appropriate ‘public order’ policing methods, and attributions of responsibility for the development of crowd conflict. As predicted, police officers saw the composition of football and demonstration crowds as mixed; yet at the same time they constructed a dichotomy between a powerful minority, capable of exerting social influence in the service of violence and ‘disorder’, and a majority, who are unable to resist this influence. Police officers in the sample did not clearly endorse the view that crowds pose a homogenous threat; however, they recommended control and quick intervention to prevent the escalation of crowd violence but denied that such methods might themselves contribute to the development of conflict. Path analysis of the major measures provides suggestive evidence that these perceptions of the crowd are related as part of a coherent ideology. Overall, these results offer support for the Elaborated Social Identity Model of crowd behaviour as a dynamic intergroup process.
European Journal of Social Psychology, 2009
Classical theories of crowd behaviour view crowd conflict as deriving from the pathology of the crowd itself. Recent developments in crowd psychology as the elaborated social identity model (ESIM) conceptualize crowd behaviour as a dynamic intergroup process between demonstrators and police. The present study assessed exposure to crowd conflict, adherence to classical views of crowd behaviour, public order policing methods and attributions of responsibility for crowd conflict among 352 Italian police officers. Results showed that exposure to crowd conflict was related to adherence to classical views of crowd, which, in turn, was related to ‘bad practices’ of public order policing and to system-justificatory attributions. Overall, these results offer support and extend the police perspective within the ESIM model. Practical implications for public order policing strategies and training are also discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The Role of Police Perceptions and Practices in the Development of Public Disorder 1, 2
Journal of Applied Social …, 2003
Recent studies suggest that crowd conflict needs to be understood as an interaction between the crowd and out-groups such as the police. This paper describes a questionnaire survey in which 80 police officers from 2 United Kingdom forces were asked about their perceptions of crowds, appropriate "public order" policing methods, and attributions of responsibility for crowd conflict. As predicted, police officers saw the composition of crowds as mixed; yet they also constructed a dichotomy between a powerhl minority, capable of exerting influence in the service of disorder, and a majority, who are unable to resist this influence. Police officers did not clearly endorse the view that crowds pose a homogeneous threat. They recommended control and quick intervention to prevent the escalation of crowd violence but denied that such methods might themselves contribute to conflict. Path analysis provides suggestive evidence that these perceptions of the crowd are related as part of a coherent ideology. Overall, these results offer support for the elaborated social identity model of crowd behavior as a dynamic intergroup process.
Crowd Psychology, Public order police training and the policing of football crowds
Purpose -This study seeks to examine what theory of crowd psychology is being applied within public order police training in England and Wales and what accounts of crowds, police strategies and tactics subsequently emerge among officers who undertake this training. Design/methodology/approach -The study uses a multi-method approach including observations of public order training courses, interviews with students and instructors, and the dissemination of questionnaires. Findings -The analysis suggests that a form of crowd theory associated with the work of Gustave Le Bon has become institutionalised within police training. This in turn is leading to a potentially counter-productive reliance on the undifferentiated use of force when policing crowds. Practical implications -The study illustrates that such training outcomes not only are counter to the recent developments in evidence, theory and policy but also undermine the police's ability to develop more efficient and effective approaches to policing crowds. Originality/value -The study provides a systematic review of public order training which demonstrates how crowd theory is used as a rationale and justification for the use of tactics based on undifferentiated force. It makes suggestions for improving police training so that updates in policy and theory can be translated into operational practice.
The Strategic Challenge of Riots: Riot Action and Crowd Power
Are we entering an age of disorder? Recent events worldwide, and the continuing threat of global economic downturns, suggest the potential for large-scale civil disturbances. If so, public order maintenance and containing riots and disturbances will become key concerns as states and their security forces (the police and military) respond to an age of political and economic uncertainty. An operationally sound response to riots, mobs, and other forms of disorder has strategic implications for governments across the world. This essay looks at the dynamics of riots and order maintenance. We examine the politics of crowd power in a networked environment and suggest approaches to develop sound intelligence to understand the range of riot and crowd control issues that security services encounter in urban riot control. While the complex operations literature has understandably focused on overseas operations, domestic public order maintenance is an equally demanding undertaking with far-reaching political consequences. Operations must simultaneously prevent harm and disorder while avoiding provocation and respecting the right to voice dissent. Managing public order, in turn, requires an understanding of the nuances of crowds and mobs and the dynamics of domestic interagency coordination.
Policing Protests (RIOTS): An Investigation and Analysis of Crowd Management Strategies
International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology , 2022
This article presents a literature overview which probes police and operational policies, relevant legislation and crowd management guidelines, in an effort to pinpoint popular modern protest management practices in South Africa. The study adopts a discursive framework, with information gathered, categorized, plotted, critically considered and a line of reasoning developed. In order to verify the current status of Public Order Police(POP) in South Africa, a thorough study of all relevant legislature and working guidelines (including National Instructions, Standing Orders, SAPS strategic plans, etc.) has been piloted and the implications of these instruction documents examined. Firstly, notwithstanding the paucity of studies on service delivery complaints conducted or published between 1994 and 2000, this study shows a significant disparity among complaint management policies used within the trial organizations. Secondly, the studies that are available are narrative analyses of rally events and are not grounded in any hypothetical ideals or investigative philosophy. The author believes that this article will play an important role in shaping future government theory and therefore practices, and in contributing to an empirical measure of dissent. This will be of applied benefit to decision-makers at all levels.
Dialogue Police, Decision Making, and the Management of Public Order During Protest Crowd Events
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 2012
Following unprecedented challenges to public order policing in the UK, Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of Constabulary conducted a detailed review of public order policing which emphasised the need to facilitate peaceful protest. The Association of Chief Police Officers revised its guidance manual accordingly to emphasise 'policing by consent', 'engagement and dialogue'. These guidelines, however, fit imperfectly with established practice and so police forces across the UK are revisiting understandings of crowd behaviour and public order tactics. The 2011 Liberal Democrat Spring conference in Sheffield, therefore, was both an interesting event in itself, and a critical test case for dialogue-based policing in the UK. This paper draws on empirical data to analyse the case study and tease out the lessons to be learned from what proved to be a successful policing operation.
TACKLING FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM: A Quantitative Study of Public Order, Policing and Crowd Psychology
Psychology Public Policy and Law, 2008
This paper contributes to the science of crowd dynamics and psychology by examining the social psychological processes related to the relative absence of "hooliganism" at the Finals of the 2004 Union Européenne de Football Association (UEFA) Football (Soccer) Championships in Portugal. Quantitative data from a structured observational study is integrated with data from a questionnaire survey of a group associated ubiquitously with 'hooliganism' -namely England fans. This analysis provides support for the contention that the absence of 'disorder' can be attributed in large part to the non-paramilitary policing style adopted in cities hosting tournament matches. Evidence is presented which suggests that this style of policing supported forms of non-violent collective psychology that, in turn, served to psychologically marginalise violent groups from the wider community of fans. The study highlights the mutually constructive relationships that can be created between psychological theory, research, policing policy and practice, particularly in relation to the successful management of 'public order'. The paper concludes by exploring some of the wider implications of this research for theory, policy, the management of crowds, social conflict, and human rights more generally.