DISSERTATION | Interest Groups and Ideas: The Battle Over Housing Finance in the run-up to the Financial Crisis (original) (raw)

Abstract

This dissertation advances the state of knowledge on interest group influence in congressional committees. Portions of this work have been delivered at the American Political Science Association Annual Meetings. In 2015, this dissertation received the Joseph L. Fisher Award for best dissertation in public policy.

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References (18)

  1. References'''...................................................................................................................'145' Biography'''....................................................................................................................'161' vi! ! Figure'1.9.' Social'Network'of'Inverse'Hellinger'Distances' June'25,'2003' Cutpoint'<'0.3' Table'1.4.' Top'10'Members'in'Information'Centrality' June'25,'2003' ! ! 80! Wall'et'al.'(1996)'found'that'occupations'that'placed'a'higher'cognitive'demand' on'the'subject'were'associated'with'increased'anxiety,'a'relationship'which'could' be' moderated' by' other' factors' such' as' decision' latitude' and' timing' control.' Similarly,' Humphrey' et' al.' (2007)' conducted' a' meta:analysis' of' 259' studies' on' work' design,' finding' that' most' studies' indicate' high:complexity' jobs' tax' the' subject's' cognitive' resources,' resulting' in' overload.' Miller' and' Cohen' (2001)' present'a'theory'in'neuroscience'in'which'the'part'of'the'brain'that'is'primarily' engaged' in' these' tasks' is' the' Prefrontal' Cortex' (PFC).' They' mention' that' "[the' PFC's]' wide:ranging' inputs' and' intrinsic' connections.' .' .' provide' a' substrate' suitable' for' synthesizing' and' representing' diverse' forms' of' information' needed' to' guide' performance' in' complex' tasks,"' an' observation' that' was' confirmed' by' previous' brain:imaging' studies' involving' subjects' performing' complex' card: sorting' and' selective' attention:based' tasks' (MacDonald' et' al.,' 2000).' Nisbett' (2009)'also'suggests'high:complexity'tasks'are'most'likely'to'engage'the'PFC.'' ' It'is'difficult'to'grasp'just'how'complex'some'industries'are.'The'typical'financial' institution'has'a'team'of'specialists'whose'sole'purpose'is'to'manage'credit'risk,' another' whose' focus' is' interest' rate' risk,' another' which' manages' counterparty' risk,' agency' risk,' and' so' on.' Another' team' exists' to' execute' their' transactions.! ! 81! Explaining'something'as'ostensibly'simple'as'how'a'dollar'has'been'spent'is'not' always'a'trivial'matter.'Even'with'all'of'this'expertise,'many'of'these'institutions' still'failed'in'2008.'' ' It'is'almost'facile'to'believe'the'average'congressional'committee'member'could' come' up' with' a' bill' regulating' a' product' as' complex' as' financial' derivatives' or' health'insurance'on'his'own.'At'best,'his'staff'will'piece'together'components'of' several'ideas'originating'from'a'combination'of'interest'groups,'committee'staff,' and' regulatory' agencies.' At' worst,' he' will' let' an' interest' group' write' the' bill.' Extant' research' indicates' that' members' of' Congress' frequently' do' not' read' the' bills'that'are'passed'(Curry,'2011).'With'small'office'staffs'and'committee'staffs' bolstered' by' a' supply' of' interns,' it' seems' unlikely' that' members' of' Congress' could'complete'the'work'that'needs'to'be'done'in'complex'industries'without'the' assistance'of'interest'groups.'' ' Berry'and'Wilcox'(2009)'and'Cigler'(1985)'mention'the'importance'of'complexity' in' understanding' interest' group' influence,' but' the' evidence' presented' in' these' and' other' studies' amounts' to' an' educated' hunch.' Building' on' the' intuition' ! 103! From'this'study'we'can'infer'that'the'causal'chain'for'persuasion:based'theories' of' interest' group' politics' begins' with' the' complexity' of' the' policy' issue.' Going' back' to' Paper' 1,' we' know' that' interest' groups' are' able' to' use' access' to' frame' policy'issues'and'affect'the'way'members'of'Congress'understand'and'interpret' policy:relevant' information.' In' Paper' 2,' I' suggest' that' complex' policy' issues' place'a'higher'cognitive'demand'on'the'legislator,'which'creates'circumstances'in' which' framing' and' belief' diffusion' processes' can' predominate.' This' theory' can' account' for' the' result' in' Paper' 1' in' which' we' observe' similar' mental' maps' among' members' of' the' House' Financial' Services' Committee' who' have' similar' donors,' controlling' for' ideology.' When' this' complexity' is' not' present,' the' circumstances'favor'the'predominance'of'legislative'subsidy.' ' This' study' also' provides' insight' into' strategic' concerns' interest' groups' may' have.'An'interest'group'may'not'prefer'a'legislator,'or'a'congressional'office,'that' is' expert' in' their' policy' area.' They' may' prefer' a' legislator' who' is' only' knowledgeable'enough'to'understand'and'recall'the'interest'group's'arguments,' but'not'so'knowledgeable'that'they'could'challenge'them'or'think'of'alternative' models'on'their'own.'In'confusion'lies'the'opportunity.'' ' 107! strategy'is'similar'to'that'of'proponents'of'vote:buying'models,'who'examine'the' correlation' between' campaign' contributions' and' legislative' votes,' except' the' votes'have'been'effectively'monetized.'' ' One' problem' with' the' data' journalists'' approach' is' that' there' is' no' way' to' distinguish'between'the'influence'of'campaign'contributions'and'the'results'of'a' random'process'in'which'the'corporations'sometimes'benefit.'The'counterfactual' to' the' data' journalists'' model' could' be' thought' of' as' analogous' to' a' casino.' A' corporation'may'spend'$1000'to'participate'at'the'roulette'table.'The'corporation' may' receive' winnings' from' time' to' time,' but' the' winnings' would' be' nothing' more' than' the' result' of' a' random' process.' However,' the' data' journalists'' approach' would' compare' the' amount' won' and' the' amount' spent,' and' assume' the'return'represents'the'player's'influence'on'the'casino.' ' A'second'problem'with'this'approach'is'that'the'causal'mechanism'is'imprecise.' Do'members'of'Congress'mechanically'respond'to'financial'incentives'or'do'they' get' comfortable' with' the' policy' positions' of' their' financial' contributors' by' increasing' their' exposure' to' them?' Assuming' members' of' Congress' have' some' sort' of' conscience,' what' process' would' they' go' through' to' bring' themselves' to' ! 108! consistently' sell' votes' from' day:to:day?' This' study' suggests' theories' of' vote: buying' cannot' explain' the' data' on' interest' group' influence' without' relying' on' access:based'theories.''' ' ' Theory' ' Theories'of'vote:buying'assume'a'transactional'process'in'which'interest'groups' purchase' votes' in' exchange' for' campaign' contributions.' Theories' of' legislative' subsidy' challenge' the' view' that' interest' groups' purchase' votes.' However,' both' theoretical' streams' assume' interest' group' influence' processes' operate' through' the'rational,'purposive'action'of'interest'groups'and'members'of'Congress.'' ' Most'of'the'empirical'literature'for'and'against'the'vote:buying'hypothesis'was' written' before' the' recent' resurgence' in' Social' Network' Analysis' in' political' science' (Hall' and' Wayman,' 1990;' Morton' and' Cameron,' 1992;' Austen:Smith,' 1995;' Kollman,' 1997).' Indeed,' many' of' the' most' commonly' cited' papers' were' written' in' the' 1990s,' while' the' organized' Political' Networks' Section' of' the' American' Political' Science' Association' (APSA)' has' only' been' formally' recognized' since' 2009.' This' is' significant' because' the' approach' that' social' network' analysts' take' to' understanding' social' influence' goes' further' than' the' ! 109! assumption' of' rational' action' to' explain' the' behavior' of' members' of' Congress,' and' examines' relationships' of' mutual' trust,' access,' and' the' dynamics' of' information' diffusion.' While' this' approach' does' assume' rational' action' takes' place' among' interest' groups' and' members' of' Congress,' the' approach' also' assumes'something'is'occurring'mentally'when'a'member's'social'network'acts' upon'him.'' ' This'study'tests'theories'of'vote:buying'and'access:based'theories'head:to:head.' Access:based'theories'assume'financial'contributions'are'important'in'explaining' members'' policy' views,' but' the' contributions' affect' their' views' predominantly' through' the' access' they' provide' rather' than' through' a' direct' response' to' financial'incentives.'Consistent'with'Wright'(1990),'access:based'theories'predict' that' there' is' a' relationship' between' financial' contributions' and' committee:level' voting,' but' this' is' primarily' because' members' tend' to' provide' more' access' to' interest' groups' that' provide' greater' financial' contributions.' As' suggested' in' Papers'1'and'2'and'the'supporting'literature,'this'access'creates'the'opportunity' to'provide'information,'advice,'research,'and'advocacy'(Koger'and'Victor,'2009).'' ' ! 110! When' members' of' Congress' provide' a' class' of' interest' groups' with' greater' access,' they' are' providing' them' with' the' opportunity' to' shape' the' intellectual' environment' operating' upon' them' and' their' staffs.' This' environmental' change' might'help'explain'how'members'of'Congress'deal'with'the'cognitive'dissonance' created'in'scenarios'where'their'policy'positions'depart'from'the'interests'of'their' constituents'or'their'ex$ante'personal'values.'An'extension'of'this'literature'might' suggest'members'of'Congress'shape'their'environments'such'that'it'is'difficult'to' think' differently' from' the' coalitions' of' interest' groups' that' lobby' them.' When' members' are' consistently' meeting' with' the' same' sets' of' groups,' reading' their' literature,' speaking' at' their' engagements,' and' socializing' with' them' off:the: clock,'they'are'being'socialized'to'increase'their'receptivity'to'certain'frames.'The' outcome' could' possibly' be' the' result' of' a' member's' rational' attempt' to' bring' himself'to'agree'with'a'policy'position'that'is'financially'advantageous,'but'it'is' not'necessary'to'assume'so,'and'that'type'of'rationality'is'different'from'a'purely' utilitarian,'atomistic'conception.' ' This' study' suggests' the' causal' mechanisms' laid' out' here' and' introduced' in' Papers'1'and'2'are,'in'fact,'socio:psychological'processes.'The'study'rules'out'the' possibility'that'the'data'on'interest'group'influence'can'be'explained'by'simple' ! 116! influence,' then' we' would' expect' that' interest' groups' that' are' able' to' achieve' access,'but'do'not'do'so'by'way'of'campaign'contributions,'will'not'have'more' influence'than'a'control'group.' ' H0:'Access'anomaly'groups'have'greater'influence'than'a'set'of'matched'controls.' H1:'Access'anomaly'groups'do'not'have'greater'influence'than'a'set'of'matched' controls.'' ' If' we' did' not' want' to' be' quite' as' rigid,' we' might' suggest' that' interest' groups' which'achieve'access'through'non:financial'means'do'have'some'influence,'but' when'they'get'that'influence,'it'is'not'as'great'as'that'of'a'set'of'interest'groups' that' achieve' their' access' through' financial' means.' Here,' we' would' expect' the' "access' anomaly"' organizations' to' outperform' a' control' group,' but' to' statistically' underperform' a' matched' group' of' organizations' whose' primary' means'of'engagement'is'financial.' ' H0:'Access'anomaly'groups'do'not'have'greater'influence'than'a'set'of'matched' controls.' H2:'Access'anomaly'groups'have'greater'influence'than'a'set'of'matched'controls.' ! 117! H0:' There' is' no' statistically' significant' difference' between' the' influence' level' of' access'anomaly'groups'and'large'donors.' H3:'Access'anomaly'groups'have'less'influence'than'large'donors.' ' However,' if' theories' of' vote:buying' are' totally' inadequate,' we' would' expect' to' see' scenarios' more' consistent' with' access:based' theories.' For' example,' if' the' mechanism'through'which'campaign'contributions'operate'is'through'the'access' those' contributions' provide,' then' we' would' expect' to' see' that' interest' groups' that'achieve'access'without'making'significant'campaign'contributions'not'only' outperform' a' control' group,' but' they' statistically' perform' just' as' well' as' a' matched'set'of'interest'groups'whose'primary'means'of'engagement'is'financial.' In' other' words,' there' would' be' a' three:part' hypothesis' that' 1.)' there' is' a' statistically' significant' difference' between' the' performance' of' the' "access' anomaly"' organizations' and' a' control' group,' 2.)' there' is' also' a' statistically' significant' difference' between' the' performance' of' the' "large' donor"' organizations' and' a' control' group,' and' 3.)' there' is' not' a' statistically' significant' difference' between' the' performance' of' the' "access' anomaly"' organizations' and' the'"large'donor"'organizations.' ! 118! H0:'Access'anomaly'groups'do'not'have'greater'influence'than'a'set'of'matched' controls.' H4:'Access'anomaly'groups'have'greater'influence'than'a'set'of'matched'controls.' ' H0:'Large'donors'do'not'have'greater'influence'than'a'set'of'matched'controls.' H5:'Large'donors'have'greater'influence'than'a'set'of'matched'controls.'' ' H0:'Large'donor'groups'have'greater'influence'than'access'anomaly'groups.' H6:' There' is' no' statistically' significant' difference' between' the' influence' level' of' access'anomaly'groups'and'large'donors.'' ' This' setup' was' predicated' upon' the' fact' that' the' chances' of' a' combination' of' hypothesis'tests'performing'as'predicted'at'once,'in'the'absence'of'a'true'causal' mechanism,'are'lower'than'the'chances'of'any'one'test'performing'as'predicted.'' ' This' study' measured' members'' intellectual' approaches' to' policy' problems' through' a' Correlated' Topic' Model' (CTM).' CTMs' were' developed' as' part' of' a' family'of'Topic'Models'in'artificial'intelligence'to'find'the'latent'topic'structure' underlying'a'text,'map'the'speakers''mental'models,'and'categorize'documents' ! 119! for'information'retrieval.'Correlated'Topic'Models'are'discussed'in'greater'detail' in'Paper'1'(pp.'61:66),'and'were'formally'introduced'in'Blei'and'Lafferty'(2007).'' ' The'key'output'of'a'CTM'is'a'probability'distribution'of'the'topics'invoked'by'a' speaker,' and' those' topics' are' a' probability' distribution' that' reflects' the' co: occurring'words'the'speaker'is'linking'when'they'discuss'a'latent'concept.''This' output'is'a'type'of'mental'map'that'can'be'used'to'compare'different'texts.'Two' texts'are'understood'to'be'similar'in'terms'of'the'mental'map'underlying'them'if' their' probability' distributions' for' the' set' of' topics' are' similar.' The' difference' between'any'two'probability'distributions'is'given'by'the'Hellinger'Distance'(see' Paper' 1,' Eq.' 2' of' this' dissertation' (pp.65:66),' and' Blei' and' Lafferty' (2007).' Document' Similarity' is' measured' as' 1:Hellinger' Distance.' For' simplicity,' this' paper'refers'to'1:Hellinger'Distance'as'Hellinger'Similarity.' ' To' determine' whether' any' given' set' of' interest' groups' influenced' the' mental' maps' of' members' of' Congress,' hearing' transcripts' for' every' GSE' Reform' Hearing' between' 2000' and' 2008' were' analyzed' in' a' CTM.' Hellinger' Similarity' was'calculated'for'each'dyad'of'committee'members'linked'by'an'interest'group' ! In'the'GSE'Reform'Debate,'the'most'active'"access'anomaly"'organizations'were' The' Consumer' Federation' of' America' and' Enterprise' Community' Partners.' Other' organizations' in' this' category' with' clear' access' to' committee' members' included'The'National'Low'Income'Housing'Coalition,'The'National'Association' of' Affordable' Housing' Lenders,' The' Center' for' Responsible' Lending,' and' CityView,' which' was' run' by' former' U.S.' Department' of' Housing' and' Urban' Development'Secretary'Henry'Cisneros'(Figure'3.1).' ' Figure'3.1.' Graph'of'"Access'Anomaly"'Organizations'and'FS'Committee'Members' ! 123! ' ' Figure'3.2.' Unipartite'Agent:by:Agent'Projection'of'Figure'3.1' ' ' ' The' most' vivid' illustration' of' the' influence' of' these' groups' was' the' interaction' between'Enterprise'Community'Partners'and'the'Financial'Services'Committee.' On' September' 12,' 2000,' Kris' Siglin,' an' Enterprise' policy' staffer,' provided' a' rationale' for' tying' GSE' Reform' legislation' to' meeting' the' nation's' affordable' housing'needs:' "A' point' that' I' think' seems' to' be' getting' lost' in' this' discussion' is,' rather' than' talking'about'privatizing'Fannie'and'Freddie'and'taking'away'their'Government' benefits,'I'think'you'ought'to'be'asking'a'series'of'hard'questions'about'what'the' taxpayers' and' the' public' get' in' exchange' for' the' existence' of' the' GSEs' which' receive' benefits.' So,' these' are' a' set' of' questions' that' go' to' mission' regulation.' What'are'we'getting'that'we'wouldnyt'otherwise'get'due'to'their'existence?'.'.'.'So' we' work' well' with' the' GSEs' because,' you' know,' we' are' culturally' compatible' with'them.'But'could'they'do'more?'Yes,'they'could.'You'should'be'asking'them' [to'do]'more"'(Siglin,'2000).'
  2. ! 124! Over' the' year' prior' to' Siglin's' testimony,' an' Enterprise' board' member' made' small,'$500'donations'to'Reps.'Kanjorski,'Vento,'and'Lazio,'signaling'some'form' of'access'to'these'members'of'the'Committee.''By'2005,'the'Democratic'Ranking' Member,' Barney' Frank,' was' using' the' same' rationale' as' Enterprise' to' address' affordable'housing'needs'through'the'GSE'Reform'legislation:' Rep.' Frank:' "I' agree' with' those' who' say' that' Fannie' and' Freddie' are' not' spending' enough' of' their' resources' on' affordable' housing.' .' .' They' get' an' advantage' from' the' market.' .' .' But' there' are' two' approaches' to' it.' There' is' the' administration' predilection,' and' the' administration' predilection' is:' 'Fannie' and' Freddie' get' certain' advantage' because' of' this' market' perception,' and' they' can' borrow'money'more'cheaply,'and'they'do'not'do'enough'for'affordable'housing,' let's' reduce' their' overall' activity,' let's' cut' down' what' they' do.'' Others' of' us' believe-and' I' think' this' is' overwhelmingly' the' case' on' our' side' -.' .' .' instead,' let's' leave' them' at' the' current' level,' unless' safety' and' soundness' dictate' otherwise,' and' have' them' do' more' about' affordable' housing.' .' .' That' is' the' approach'that'we'will'be'taking,'and'I'think'those'are'the'issues'that'we'will'be' dealing'with'in'the'legislative'situation"'(Frank,'2005).' ' In' this' hearing,' Rep.' Frank' asked' the' Bush' Administration's' HUD' Secretary,' Alphonso' Jackson,' for' the' Administration's' views' on' a' potential' affordable' housing' fund.' When' Jackson' attempted' to' dodge' the' question,' Frank' pressed' him'hard'on'the'issue:' Mr.'Frank:'.'.'.'So'are'you'in'favor'of'that'provision?' Secretary'Jackson:'My'position'is,'I'have,'as'long'as'they'want'to'do'more,'that'is' fine.' Mr.'Frank:'Are'you'in'favor'of'us'mandating'it?'That'is'English.'I'am'sorry'for' my'diction,'but'you'can'understand'that.' ! 125! Secretary'Jackson:'But'you'are'the'Chairman,'I'am'not-I'mean,'you'are'the' Ranking'Member.'This'is'the'finance--'
  3. Mr.'Frank:'Yes,'I'am'the'Ranking'Member'asking'the-excuse'me,'Mr.'Secretary,' but'you'have'come'before'us'to'make'recommendations'about'legislation.'I'asked' you'about'a'specific'piece,'and'you'act'as'if'somehow'I'am'invading'your' privacy.'The'point'is'this:'We'have'legislation.'I'do'not'want'to'wait'for'Fannie'or' Freddie'to'decide'to'do'it.'.'.' Are'you'in'favor'of'an'amendment'to'this'bill'that'would'mandate'that'5'percent' of'their'profits'go'into'subsidized'affordable'housing?' Secretary'Jackson:'That'is'your'decision'to'make.' The'Chairman:'The'gentleman's'time'has'[expired]'--' 'Mr.'Frank.'Why'are'you'here?'' Secretary'Jackson:'I'am'here'to'tell'you'what'our'viewpoint'is.'' Mr.'Frank:'Well,'then'tell'me'your'viewpoint'on'that.' Secretary'Jackson:'That'is'my'viewpoint.' Mr.'Frank:'I'know'it'is'my'decision.'What'is'your'viewpoint'on'our'decision?' The'Chairman:'The'gentleman's'time'has'expired'' (The'Administrative'Perspective'on'GSE'Regulatory'Reform,'2005).'
  4. ! The'final'GSE'Reform'legislation'included'the'affordable'housing'fund,'and'was' signed'into'law'on'July'30,'2008.'Affordable'housing'organizations,'which'were' not' significant' financial' contributors' to' the' Financial' Services' Committee,' had' achieved'their'goal'through'access;'and'they'did'so'on'a'committee'that'the'vote: buying'hypothesis'would'predict'to'be'dominated'by'large,'financial'interests.'' ! ! 126! Results! ' The'Wilcoxon'Signed'Rank'Test'disconfirmed'the'strong'version'of'the'pro'vote: buying'hypotheses'(H1).''Member'dyads'who'were'linked'by'interest'groups'that' were'able'to'achieve'access,'but'did'not'do'so'by'way'of'campaign'contributions,' had' higher' Hellinger' Similarity' metrics' than' a' set' of' control' dyads' that' were' matched' to' the' test' dyads' by' the' ideological' distance' reflected' in' the' NOMINATE' score.' These' results' were' statistically' significant,' using' a' significance'level'of'<'0.05.' ' On'the'weak'version'of'the'pro'vote:buying'hypothesis,'H2'was'confirmed,'and' H3'was' disconfirmed.' Member' dyads' that' were' linked' by' interest' groups' who' achieved' their' access' through' non:financial' means' did' have' higher' Hellinger' Similarity' metrics' than' a' control' group,' consistent' with' H2,' but' when' they' achieved' that' access,' they' did' not' statistically' underperform' a' group' of' ideologically' controlled' matched' dyads' who' were' linked' by' large' donor' organizations,' disconfirming' H3.' Both' of' these' tests' used' a' significance' level' of''''' <' 0.05,' and' the' results' also' held' up' using' a' significance' level' of' <' 0.10.' These' results' were' consistent' with' a' scenario' in' which' interest' groups' who' do' not' make' significant' campaign' contributions,' but' are' able' to' successfully' clear' the' ! 127! access'hurdle,'have'just'as'much'influence'as'interest'groups'who'tend'to'make' large'campaign'contributions.'' ' The' Wilcoxon' Signed' Rank' Test' strongly' confirmed' the' three:part' combination' of' hypotheses' consistent' with' access:based' theories' (H4,' H5,' and' H6).' Members' dyads'who'were'linked'by'organizations'that'managed'to'achieve'access,'but'did' not'make'significant'financial'contributions,'had'higher'similarity'metrics'than'a' control' group,' consistent' with' H4;' member' dyads' who' were' linked' by' large' donor' organizations' also' outperformed' the' control' group,' consistent' with' H5;' and' there' was' no' statistically' significant' difference' between' member' dyads' linked'by'large'donor'organizations'and'member'dyads'linked'by'organizations' that' successfully' achieved' access' through' non:financial' means.' Further' reinforcing' H6,' the' results' were' consistent' at' both' the' <' 0.05' and' <' 0.10' significance' levels' (Table' 3.1).' ' The' sum' of' ranks' for' the' access' anomaly' dyads' was' actually' higher' than' the' sum' of' ranks' for' the' matched' large' donor' dyads,' but'the'z:score'(:1.13)'indicated'they'were'not'systematically'different.'The'effect: size' (' r' )' for' the' access' anomaly' dyads' was' 0.20,' which' is' halfway' between' the' small'and'medium'ranges'for'the'sciences,'according'to'Cohen's'benchmark.'The' effect:size'for'the'large'donor'dyads'was'0.15.'
  5. ! Paper' 1' indicates' that' when' members' of' congressional' committees' receive' campaign' contributions' from' a' similar' set' of' interest' groups,' they' begin' to' talk' about' policy' issues' using' similar' mental' maps,' connecting' the' same' ideas' with' similar' probabilities.' These' results' were' consistent' in' a' matched:pairs' design' using'nonparametric'tests,'and'MRQAP.'This'statistical'association'was'evident' in' the' debate' over' the' regulatory' structure' for' Fannie' Mae' and' Freddie' Mac.' Although' the' GSEs' were' under' the' congressional' spotlight' several' years' before' the' Financial' Crisis,' they' were' allowed' to' plunge' into' the' Alt:A' and' Interest' Only' markets' in' 2005.' Declining' underwriting' standards' were' spreading' form' Wall'Street'to'the'GSEs.''But'the'policy'debate'among'reformers'focused'on'the' GSEs''retained'portfolios'and'an'affordable'housing'fund;'credit'risk'was'absent' from' the' discussion.' By' 2008,' the' GSEs' needed' one' of' the' largest' bailouts' in' American'history:'189'billion.'More'than'the'next'25'banks'combined.'The'House' Financial'Services'Committee'could'only'conceive'of'a'scenario'in'which'interest' rate' risk' would' cause' the' GSEs' to' fail.' The' situation' that' actually' occurred' was' unthinkable'based'on'the'arguments'the'members'were'presented'with.'That'is' the'consequence'of'belief'diffusion.'Ideas'get'traction'based'on'who'has'access,' relationship:building,'and'superior'coordination.'The'problems'are'too'complex' ! 134! for' members' and' their' staffs' to' simply' draw' their' own' conclusions.' The' stakes' are'too'high.'So'they'find'themselves'in'a'paradox.' ' Paper'2'indicates'that'the'degree'to'which'members'of'Congress'rely'on'lobbyists' is' influenced' by' the' complexity' of' the' policy' problems' they' are' tasked' with' solving.' Across' 32' industries,' the' number' of' lobbyists' getting' access' to' the' Congress' increased' with' the' complexity' of' the' work' in' the' industries.' These' results'suggest'members'of'Congress'are'not'merely'taking'the'legislative'pulse' of'different'interest'groups,'but'are'actively'providing'them'with'the'opportunity' to'shape'the'way'they'understand'policy'problems.'' ' Paper'3'indicates'that'the'influence'process'through'which'interest'groups'affect' members' of' Congress' is' not' a' simple' quid' pro' quo' in' which' campaign' contributions' are' exchanged' for' votes.' It' is' a' causal' chain' in' which' campaign' contributions'provide'access,'and'that'access'provides'the'opportunity'to'shape' the'way'members'and'their'staffs'see'policy'problems.'' ' The'message'connecting'these'three'studies'is'that'the'influence'process'operates' through'cognitive'mechanisms'that'result'from'the'intellectual'environment'that' ! 135! members'of'Congress'and'their'interest'group'donors'create.'Members'and'their' staffs' are' situated' within' networks' of' interest' groups' that' provide' much' of' the' information,'research,'and'policy'logic'they'are'exposed'to.'For'an'interest'group,' serving'as'a'key'member'of'one'of'these'networks'is'more'consequential'than'the' mere'financial'incentive'for'a'member'to'vote'in'a'certain'direction'that'is'created' by'the'campaign'contribution.'Campaign'contributions'operate'through'a'socio: psychological' process' in' which' the' access' they' create' results' in' the' diffusion' of' ideas' and' information.' These' studies' also' indicate' that' on' congressional' committees,' we' see' interest' groups' persuading' members' rather' than' simply' providing'resources'to'their'legislative'allies.'' ' One' question' that' arises' from' these' studies' is:' Is' a' scenario' in' which' members'' policy'views'are'altered'in'response'to'social'influence'any'better'than'a'scenario' in'which'they'merely'vote'in'response'to'financial'incentives?'The'answer'is,'not' necessarily.' A' member' who' is' deeply' embedded' in' a' relatively' closed' issue' network' might' believe' his' position' to' be' morally' superior' to' other' members'' positions'based'on'his'limited'information,'and'he'may'therefore'be'less'willing' to' negotiate' than' a' hypothetical' member' who' simply' responded' to' financial' incentives.'In'this'sense,'social'influence'can'make'members'feel'morally'justified' 145! ' ' ' REFERENCES'FOR'CHAPTERS'I'&'II' ' ' ' Bachrach,'Peter'and'Morton'S.'Baratz.'(1962).'"Two'Faces'of'Power."'American'Political' Science'Review'56(4):'947:52.'' ' Berry,'Jeffrey'M.'(1984).'The'Interest'Group'Society.'(Boston:'Little,'Brown'&'Co.)' '
  6. Dahl,' Robert' A.' (1961).' Who' Governs:' Democracy' and' Power' in' an' American' City.' 1st' edition.'(New'Haven:'Yale'University'Press).' ' Berry,' Jeffrey' M.' and' Clyde' Wilcox.' (2009)' The' Interest' Group' Society.' 5th' ed.' (New' York:'Pearson'Education).'' ' Boggs,'Thomas'Hale'Jr,'"Lobbyists'Aren't'As'Evil'As'Everyone'Seems'to'Think,"'Sunday' Star:News,' Section' 6E,' February' 21,' 1993' accessed' November' 8,' 2014' Retrieved' from:' http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1454&dat=19930221&id=JK0sAAAAIB
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