Beyond smelting: New insights on Iron Age (10th c. BCE) metalworkers community from excavations at a gatehouse and associated livestock pens in Timna, Israel (original) (raw)
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This paper presents results of excavations at an Iron Age (~10th c. BCE) gatehouse and associated livestock pens in one of the largest copper smelting camps in Timna Valley – Site 34 (" Slaves' Hill "). The extraordinary preservation of organic materials allowed for in depth investigations of animal bones as well as seeds and pollen found in dung piles. The results demonstrate that the gatehouse area was used for keeping donkeys (or mules), which were the common draught animal at the time, together with other livestock (probably goats). The donkeys were fed with grape pomace and hay (rather than straw) that originated from the Mediterranean regions, N100 km to the northeast (Edom) and 200 km to the north (Philistia/Judea). This food reflects special treatment and care, in accordance with the key role of the donkeys in the success of copper production and trade in a logistically challenging region. Furthermore, the excavations revealed a deliberate piling of the dung against the inner face of the site's wall, most probably in order to use it as fuel in the copper smelting process (the initial heating of the furnaces). In addition, the excavations yielded insights on the metalworkers themselves, including their rich diet (as reflected by animal bones and seeds) and activities at the gatehouse area. The latter includes secondary met-allurgical processes such as refining/melting in crucibles and probably casting of ingots. Lastly, the results of this study shed new light on the Iron Age society engaged in copper production in Timna (probably early Edom), further stressing its complexity and centralized organization, as well as its involvement in interregional trade. The gatehouse and walls also indicate substantial investment in deterrence and defense, reflecting a period of instability and military threat in 10th c. BCE Timna.
This paper presents results of excavations at an Iron Age (~10th c. BCE) gatehouse and associated livestock pens in one of the largest copper smelting camps in Timna Valley – Site 34 (" Slaves' Hill "). The extraordinary preservation of organic materials allowed for in depth investigations of animal bones as well as seeds and pollen found in dung piles. The results demonstrate that the gatehouse area was used for keeping donkeys (or mules), which were the common draught animal at the time, together with other livestock (probably goats). The donkeys were fed with grape pomace and hay (rather than straw) that originated from the Mediterranean regions, N100 km to the northeast (Edom) and 200 km to the north (Philistia/Judea). This food reflects special treatment and care, in accordance with the key role of the donkeys in the success of copper production and trade in a logistically challenging region. Furthermore, the excavations revealed a deliberate piling of the dung against the inner face of the site's wall, most probably in order to use it as fuel in the copper smelting process (the initial heating of the furnaces). In addition, the excavations yielded insights on the metalworkers themselves, including their rich diet (as reflected by animal bones and seeds) and activities at the gatehouse area. The latter includes secondary met-allurgical processes such as refining/melting in crucibles and probably casting of ingots. Lastly, the results of this study shed new light on the Iron Age society engaged in copper production in Timna (probably early Edom), further stressing its complexity and centralized organization, as well as its involvement in interregional trade. The gatehouse and walls also indicate substantial investment in deterrence and defense, reflecting a period of instability and military threat in 10th c. BCE Timna.
This paper presents the results of the 2009 excavations at Site 30 in the Timna Valley, Israel. The results, coupled with a suite of 11 new radiocarbon dates, fix the chronology of the site between the 11th and 9th centuries b.c.e. and challenge the previous chronological framework of the copper production activities in the southern Arabah Valley. The paper also presents a striking correlation between Site 30 and the recently reported archaeological record of Iron Age Faynan, indicating technological and social unity between the two regions. In light of the new results and reexamination of previously published materials, we suggest that the peak in copper production in the southern Arabah occurred after the Egyptians had left their small outpost at Timna; this activity was an offshoot of the more elaborate enterprise at Faynan. The well-organized Iron Age copper production in the Arabah Valley was based on local initiatives and conducted by local seminomadic tribes, probably belonging to the Edomite polity.
Tel Aviv 44, 2017
The article deals with a rich ceramic assemblage retrieved during the survey and excavations of Site 34 (Slaves’ Hill) in the Timna Valley. Two main aspects of the assemblage are discussed: (1) its contribution to determining the relative and absolute chronology of the copper production sites in the Timna Valley (e.g., Sites 2, 30 and 200); and (2) the daily life of metalworkers (copper smelters) in the early Iron Age as reflected in their material culture. A detailed analysis of hundreds of indicative sherds demonstrates that the pottery assemblage can be typologically defined as belonging to the Iron I, and that activities on the isolated hilltop were limited to copper production. This strengthens the hypothesis that habitation took place in nearby transient encampments. Radiocarbon dating of short-lived samples allows fixing the pottery assemblage to within a tight timeframe, providing important evidence for the continuation of Iron I pottery tradition into the second half of the 10th century BCE. This, together with the presence of imported Qurayyah Painted Ware, places Site 34 in a key position for studying the early Iron Age in the Arabah Valley and adjacent regions.
This paper presents for the first time results of two excavation seasons conducted in 1979 and 1984 by the Arabah Expedition at one of the major smelting camps in the copper ore district of Timna. The results, together with new radiocarbon dates of short-lived samples from the site, demonstrate that copper production during the Late Bronze Age (13th to the first half of 12th centuries BC) was undertaken on a relatively small scale in demilitarized camps, systematically organized in a distinct area at the northern part of the Timna Valley. This production system should be associated with the Egyptian presence in the region, represented by the nearby Hathor Shrine. The new data from Site 3 also shed light on the transition to the Iron Age, a period when production peaked in the entire Arabah Valley as new copper production systems were established, replacing their predecessors entirely.
Tel Aviv, 2017
The article deals with a rich ceramic assemblage retrieved during the survey and excavations of Site 34 (Slaves’ Hill) in the Timna Valley. Two main aspects of the assemblage are discussed: (1) its contribution to determining the relative and absolute chronology of the copper production sites in the Timna Valley (e.g., Sites 2, 30 and 200); and (2) the daily life of metalworkers (copper smelters) in the early Iron Age as reflected in their material culture. A detailed analysis of hundreds of indicative sherds demonstrates that the pottery assemblage can be typologically defined as belonging to the Iron I, and that activities on the isolated hilltop were limited to copper production. This strengthens the hypothesis that habitation took place in nearby transient encampments. Radiocarbon dating of short-lived samples allows fixing the pottery assemblage to within a tight timeframe, providing important evidence for the continuation of Iron I pottery tradition into the second half of the 10th century BCE. This, together with the presence of imported Qurayyah Painted Ware, places Site 34 in a key position for studying the early Iron Age in the Arabah Valley and adjacent regions.