Fluorescence microscopy imaging of mitochondrial metabolism in cancer cells (original) (raw)
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Investigating mitochondrial redox state using NADH and NADPH autofluorescence
Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 2016
The redox states of the NAD and NADP pyridine nucleotide pools play critical roles in defining the activity of energy producing pathways, in driving oxidative stress and in maintaining antioxidant defences. Broadly speaking, NAD is primarily engaged in regulating energy-producing catabolic processes, whilst NADP may be involved in both antioxidant defence and free radical generation. Defects in the balance of these pathways are associated with numerous diseases, from diabetes and neurodegenerative disease to heart disease and cancer. As such, a method to assess the abundance and redox state of these separate pools in living tissues would provide invaluable insight into the underlying pathophysiology. Experimentally, the intrinsic fluorescence of the reduced forms of both redox cofactors, NADH and NADPH, has been used for this purpose since the mid-twentieth century. In this review, we outline the modern implementation of these techniques for studying mitochondrial redox state in complex tissue preparations. As the fluorescence spectra of NADH and NADPH are indistinguishable, interpreting the signals resulting from their combined fluorescence, often labelled NAD(P)H, can be complex. We therefore discuss recent studies using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) which offer the potential to discriminate between the two separate pools. This technique provides increased metabolic information from cellular autofluorescence in biomedical investigations, offering biochemical insights into the changes in time-resolved NAD(P)H fluorescence signals observed in diseased tissues.
Measurement of mitochondrial NADH and FAD autofluorescence in live cells
Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.), 2015
In the process of energy production, mitochondrial networks are key elements to allow metabolism of substrates into ATP. Many pathological conditions have been associated with mitochondrial dysfunction as mitochondria are associated with a wide range of cellular processes. Therefore, any disruption in the energy production induces devastating effects that can ultimately lead to cell death due to chemical ischemia. To address the mitochondrial health and function, there are several bioenergetic parameters reflecting either whole mitochondrial functionality or individual mitochondrial complexes. Particularly, metabolism of nutrients in the tricarboxylic acid cycle provides substrates used to generate electron carriers (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide [NADH] and flavin adenine dinucleotide [FADH2]) which ultimately donate electrons to the mitochondrial electron transport chain. The levels of NADH and FADH2 can be estimated through imaging of NADH/NAD(P)H or FAD autofluorescence. This...
Mitochondrial function in vivo evaluated by NADH fluorescence: from animal models to human studies
American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology, 2006
Normal mitochondrial function is a critical factor in maintaining cellular homeostasis in various organs of the body. Due to the involvement of mitochondrial dysfunction in many pathological states, the real-time in vivo monitoring of the mitochondrial metabolic state is crucially important. This type of monitoring in animal models as well as in patients provides real-time data that can help interpret experimental results or optimize patient treatment. The goals of the present review are the following: 1) to provide an historical overview of NADH fluorescence monitoring and its physiological significance; 2) to present the solid scientific ground underlying NADH fluorescence measurements based on published materials; 3) to provide the reader with basic information on the methodologies used in the past and the current state of the art fluorometers; and 4) to clarify the various factors affecting monitored signals, including artifacts. The large numbers of publications by different gr...
Mitochondrial Redox Imaging for Cancer Diagnostic and Therapeutic Studies
Journal of Innovative Optical Health Sciences, 2009
Mitochondrial redox states provide important information about energy-linked biological processes and signaling events in tissues for various disease phenotypes including cancer. The redox scanning method developed at the Chance laboratory about 30 years ago has allowed 3D highresolution (∼ 50 × 50 × 10 µm 3) imaging of mitochondrial redox state in tissue on the basis of the fluorescence of NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and Fp (oxidized flavoproteins including flavin adenine dinucleotide, i.e., FAD). In this review, we illustrate its basic principles, recent technical developments, and biomedical applications to cancer diagnostic and therapeutic studies in small animal models. Recently developed calibration procedures for the redox imaging using reference standards allow quantification of nominal NADH and Fp concentrations, and the concentration-based redox ratios, e.g., Fp/(Fp+NADH) and NADH/(Fp+NADH) in tissues. This calibration facilitates the comparison of redox imaging results acquired for different metabolic states at different times and/or with different instrumental settings. A redox imager using a CCD detector has been developed to acquire 3D images faster and with a higher in-plane resolution down to 10 µm. Ex vivo imaging and in vivo imaging of tissue mitochondrial redox status have been demonstrated with the CCD imager. Applications of tissue redox imaging in small animal cancer models include metabolic imaging of glioma and myc-induced mouse mammary tumors, predicting the metastatic potentials of human melanoma and breast cancer mouse xenografts, differentiating precancerous and normal tissues, and monitoring the tumor treatment response to photodynamic therapy. Possible future directions for the development of redox imaging are also discussed.
J Biomed Opt, 2014
Measurement of endogenous free and bound NAD(P)H relative concentrations in living cells is a useful method for monitoring aspects of cellular metabolism, because the NADH∕NAD þ reduction-oxidation pair is crucial for electron transfer through the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Variations of free and bound NAD(P)H ratio are also implicated in cellular bioenergetic and biosynthetic metabolic changes accompanying cancer. This study uses two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) to investigate metabolic changes in MCF10A premalignant breast cancer cells treated with a range of glycolysis inhibitors: namely, 2 deoxy-D-glucose, oxythiamine, lonidamine, and 4-(chloromethyl) benzoyl chloride, as well as the mitochondrial membrane uncoupling agent carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone. Through systematic analysis of FLIM data from control and treated cancer cells, we observed that all glycolytic inhibitors apart from lonidamine had a slightly decreased metabolic rate and that the presence of serum in the culture medium generally marginally protected cells from the effect of inhibitors. Direct production of glycolytic L-lactate was also measured in both treated and control cells. The combination of these two techniques gave valuable insights into cell metabolism and indicated that FLIM was more sensitive than traditional biochemical methods, as it directly measured metabolic changes within cells as compared to quantification of lactate secreted by metabolically active cells.
Autofluorescence microscopy: A non-destructive tool to monitor mitochondrial toxicity
Toxicology Letters, 2011
Visualization of NADH by fluorescence microscopy makes it possible to distinguish mitochondria inside living cells, allowing structure analysis of these organelles in a non-invasive way. Mitochondrial morphology is determined by the occurrence of mitochondrial fission and fusion. During normal cell function mitochondria appear as elongated tubular structures. However, cellular malfunction induces mitochondria to fragment into punctiform, vesicular structures. This change in morphology is associated with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and early apoptosis. The aim of this study is to demonstrate that autofluorescence imaging of mitochondria in living eukaryotic cells provides structural and morphological information that can be used to assess mitochondrial health. We firstly established the illumination conditions that do not affect mitochondrial structure and calculated the maximum safe light dose to which the cells can be exposed. Subsequently, sequential recording of mitochondrial fluorescence was performed and changes in mitochondrial morphology were monitored in a continuous non-destructive way. This approach was then used to assess mitochondrial toxicity induced by potential toxicants exposed to mammalian cells. Both mouse and human cells were used to evaluate mitochondrial toxicity of different compounds with different toxicities. This technique constitutes a novel and promising approach to explore chemical induced toxicity because of its reliability to monitor mitochondrial morphology changes and corresponding toxicity in a non-invasive way.
Assessment of Cellular Redox State Using NAD(P)H Fluorescence Intensity and Lifetime
BIO-PROTOCOL
NADH and NADPH are redox cofactors, primarily involved in catabolic and anabolic metabolic processes respectively. In addition, NADPH plays an important role in cellular antioxidant defence. In live cells and tissues, the intensity of their spectrally-identical autofluorescence, termed NAD(P)H, can be used to probe the mitochondrial redox state, while their distinct enzymebinding characteristics can be used to separate their relative contributions to the total NAD(P)H intensity using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). These protocols allow differences in metabolism to be detected between cell types and altered physiological and pathological states.
Scientific Reports
Multiphoton FLIM microscopy offers many opportunities to investigate processes in live cells, tissue and animal model systems. For redox measurements, FLIM data is mostly published by cell mean values and intensity-based redox ratios. Our method is based entirely on FLIM parameters generated by 3-detector time domain microscopy capturing autofluorescent signals of NAD(P)H, FAD and novel FLIM-FRET application of Tryptophan and NAD(P)H-a2%/FAD-a1% redox ratio. Furthermore, image data is analyzed in segmented cells thresholded by 2 × 2 pixel Regions of Interest (ROIs) to separate mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation from cytosolic glycolysis in a prostate cancer cell line. Hundreds of data points allow demonstration of heterogeneity in response to intervention, identity of cell responders to treatment, creating thereby different sub-populations. Histograms and bar charts visualize differences between cells, analyzing whole cell versus mitochondrial morphology data, all based on discrete ROIs. This assay method allows to detect subtle differences in cellular and tissue responses, suggesting an advancement over means-based analyses. Applications of Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM) have grown exponentially in a broad range of life-sciences and industrial fields, a reflection of specific advantages over intensity-based microscopy 1-5. FLIM, when combined with FRET (Förster Resonance Energy Transfer), can establish the fraction of interacting and non-interacting donor fluorophores 6-13. Importantly, fluorescence lifetime is independent of fluorophore concentration, which makes it a valuable tool for quantitative studies in scattering and absorbing samples. Both frequency domain and time domain FLIM methods have been applied 14-16. This manuscript uses the latter, also called Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) 17. Multiphoton excitation conveniently excites molecules that would otherwise require excitation in the UV region, generally injurious to live cells at longer exposure. Mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) activity consumes NADH (increased NADH-enzyme-bound fraction) and produces FAD (diminished FAD enzyme-bound fraction). Both the co-enzymes in their reduced (NAD(P)H and FADH 2) and oxidized (NAD(P) + and FAD) forms participate in the cellular oxidation-reduction reactions critical for cell physiology. In cancer, a higher glycolytic rate is a less efficient way of producing energy (2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH) than the low glycolytic rate and mitochondrial oxidation of pyruvate (36 ATP) seen in normal cells 18. The interplay between glycolysis and OXPHOS is changed in different cancers and involvement of other pathways like elevated mitochondrial glutaminolysis is also seen in prostate cancer (PCa). The coenzymes NADH and FAD are involved in catabolic reactions of amino acid and fatty acid oxidation, glycolysis, citric acid cycle and in electron transport chain (ETC) which ultimately results in energy generation by oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). NADPH is mainly involved in anabolic reactions, which use energy for biosynthesis. Previous reports have shown that Tryptophan (Trp) lifetime (as donor) is quenched through FRET
Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 2009
Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NADH, is a major electron donor in the oxidative phosphorylation and glycolytic pathways in cells. As a result, there has been recent resurgence in employing intrinsic NADH fluorescence as a natural probe for a range of cellular processes that include apoptosis, cancer pathology, and enzyme kinetics. Here, we report on two-photon fluorescence lifetime and polarization imaging of intrinsic NADH in breast cancer (Hs578T) and normal (Hs578Bst) cells for quantitative analysis of the concentration and conformation (i.e., freeto-enzyme-bound ratios) of this coenzyme. Two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging of intracellular NADH indicates sensitivity to both cell pathology and inhibition of the respiratory chain activities using potassium cyanide (KCN). Using a newly developed noninvasive assay, we estimate the average NADH concentration in cancer cells (168 ± 49 μM) to be ~ 1.8 fold higher than in breast normal cells (99 ± 37 μM). Such analyses indicate changes in energy metabolism and redox reactions in normal breast cells upon inhibition of the respiratory chain activity using KCN. In addition, timeresolved associated anisotropy of cellular autofluorescence indicates population fractions of free (0.18 ± 0.08) and enzyme-bound (0.82 ± 0.08) conformations of intracellular NADH in normal breast cells. These fractions are statistically different from those in breast cancer cells (free: 0.25 ± 0.08; bound: 0.75 ± 0.08). Comparative studies on the binding kinetics of NADH with mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase in solution mimic our findings in living cells. These quantitative studies demonstrate the potential of intracellular NADH dynamics (rather than intensity) imaging for probing mitochondrial anomalies associated with neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, diabetes, and aging. Our approach is also applicable to other metabolic and signaling pathways in living cells, without the need for cell destruction as in conventional biochemical assays.