Genetic Doping in Sports: A Biological and Legal Examination! (original) (raw)

Doping in Sport: New Developments

Human Movement, 2008

Gene doping is defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) as "the non-therapeutic use of genes, genetic elements and/or cells that have the capacity to enhance athletic performance." The rapid development of molecular biology has enabled not only treatment of many diseases, but also improvement of athletes' fitness. Gene therapy methods can be used to modify the athlete's body by inserting genes into the target tissue. It is very possible that in near future, many genes will be used in gene doping, e.g. erythropoietin, growth hormone, insulin-like growth hormone and vascular endothelial growth factor. Functional tests conducted by many independent laboratories proved that products of these genes exert a crucial influence on the body's adaptation to exercise. The risk of gene doping is enormous. Gene therapy is currently in the phase of clinical tests so it is impossible to predict what kind of side effects it may produce. Studies on animal models showed that the uncontrolled transgene expression and insertional mutagenesis can even lead to death. At present the detection of gene doping is very difficult for a variety of reasons. The main problem is the identification of the transgene and endogenously produced protein. The only possible detection is the biopsy of the target tissue, where the exogenous genes were inserted.

Gene Doping in Sports

Sports Medicine, 2004

"the non-therapeutic use of genes, genetic elements and/or cells that have the capacity to enhance athletic performance". New research in genetics and genomics will be used not only to diagnose and treat disease, but also to attempt to enhance human performance.

Doping in The Field of Sports -An Overview

In modern era doping is a very serious issue in sports world. The aim of this study was to observed the global status of doping and reviewing the reasons of doping. For the purpose of this study, the researcher reviewed 10 years (2009-2018) Laboratory testing report (Included Adverse Analytical Findings [AAF] & Atypical Finding [AF]) of WADA. Moreover, investigator studied several relevant papers from 1980 to 2020, different official sites, i.e. NADA, IOC, IAAF, TOI, The Hindus, different newspapers and other organization and searching terms were Doping, Drugs, etc. For the analysis and interpretation of data mean, percentage and their graphical representation was executed. The last 10 years (2009-2018) result shows that the total testing increased from 277928 to 344177 which included Olympic, non-Olympic and non-ADAMS data [Anti-Doping Administration and Management System]. The percentage of total finding still less from 2009 (2.02%) currently it was 1.49% (2018). The average AAF and total finding was 1.27% (3676) and 1.80% (5107). But gradual linear increment shows some light of hope. From this study it was understood that it was not only a task of a single organization to prevent any illegal activities but also made the work fruitful by the surrounded cooperating societies and those who are stand near by this sports person, developed the moral value through education and embedded in one's moral sense that doping can never be an option to achieve accolades. Keywords-Doping, drugs, moral value, education, behavior I. INTRODUCTION Sport plays an important role in society. It is a major social and economic activity, it contributes to public health, entertainment. Achievements in amateur and professional sports are sources of motivation and national pride for many countries. Through participation in sports one can enrich with positive moral values, cooperation, respect for other, for rules, for officials, role playing ability, friendship, compassion and overall social personality and spirit. It is therefore unacceptable that for a handful immoral and crime centric athlete and their entourage abolish all the good thought for the purpose of win and push the society in the way of corruption. Anti-doping regulations based on strong scientific and legal principles can therefore help to prevent abuse and ensure fair contests for athletes in all disciplines (Boye et al., 2017). Since the mid-20 th century sports are significantly influenced by drugs. The 1960s and 70s saw the wide use of amphetamines in sport; the 1980s has been described as the anabolic steroid and cortisone era; the 1990s as the human growth hormone and erythropoietin era; and more recently, the use of peptides has become widespread (Bird et al., 2016). WADA enlisted its doping categories into prohibited at all times in respect of substances and methods in-and out of competition, substances prohibited in-competition and substances prohibited in particular sports. As a broad simplification for this discrepancy the prohibited at all times, in-and out of competition have a potential benefits in terms of enhancing adaptation to training and either directly or as a consequence of these augmented adaptations to improve performance in competition. Whereas prohibited in-competition are likely to heighten the immediate short-term performance of the body by augmenting its ability to meet the demands of the exercise and thereby perform better. Moreover, some substances are prohibited under the WADA code in 'Particular Sports' if they convey benefits or hazards (World Anti-Doping Agency, 2019; Bird et al., 2016). Some sport requires an acquired skill, some are largely or solely based on skill and concentration like ball and board games, shooting, driving, and riding and may benefit from drugs that reduce anxiety, tremor, inattention or fatigue. Sports that are highly dependent on explosive, short-term anaerobic power like sprinting, throwing, boxing, wrestling, typically ones which favor a solid, muscular build, are most susceptible to androgen-induced increases in muscle mass and strength. Other sports with an emphasis on aerobic effort and endurance like long duration events, characteristically preferred by a lean build, may be boosted by blood transfusion, erythropoietin and its analogs or mimetics. Finally, sports that rest on recovery from major injury or recurrent minor injury during intensive training, notably contact sports, may benefit from tissue proliferative and remodeling effects of growth hormone and various growth factors (Bird et al., 2016; Handelsman, 2000).

ANNALS EXPRESS: Doping in sport and exercise: anabolic, ergogenic, health and clinical issues

Annals of clinical biochemistry, 2015

The use of doping agents are evident within competitive sport in senior and junior age groups, where they are taken by non-elite as well as elite participants. They are also taken in non-sporting contexts by individuals seeking to 'improve' their physique through an increase in muscle and/or decrease in fat mass. Whilst attaining accurate data on the prevalence of their use has limitations, studies suggest the illicit use of doping agents by athletes and non-athletes may be 1 - 5% in the population and greater than 50% in some groups; with the prevalence being higher in males. There is conclusive evidence that some doping agents are anabolic and ergogenic. There is also evidence that the use of doping agents such as: anabolic androgenic steroids; growth hormone and other anabolic agents; erythropoietin; and stimulants conveys considerable health risks that include, but are not limited to: cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, mental health issues, virilisation in women, ...

Doping in Sports, a Never-Ending Story ?

Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 2018

Through doping, we understand the use by athletes of substances prohibited by the anti-doping agencies in order to gain a competitive advantage. Since sport plays an important role in physical and mental education and in promoting international understanding and cooperation, the widespread use of doping products and methods has consequences not only on health of the athletes, but also upon the image of sport. Thus, doping in sports is forbidden for both ethical and medical reasons. Narcotics and analgesics, anabolic steroids, hormones, selective androgen receptor modulators are among the most frequently utilized substances. Although antidoping controls are becoming more rigorous, doping and, very importantly, masking doping methods are also advancing, and these are usually one step ahead of doping detection techniques. Depending on the sport practiced and the physical attributes it requires, the athletes will look for one or more of the following benefits of doping: recovering from ...

Sports Genomics and Sport Doping

ATHENS JOURNAL OF SPORTS, 2020

A topical issue is the need to identify new possibilities for doping, in order to protect the athlete's privacy. We consider it useful to explore the relationship between gene variants that predispose to sports performance and special sensitivity to certain doping substances. For this purpose, we conducted a study in the literature. Among the substances banned from athletes, there are some whose effect is amplified in carriers of gene variants that confer special sports skills anyway: meldomium (athletes with overexpression of PEPCK-C), corticotrophins and their releasing factors (carriers of the allele that produces alpha-actinin-3), caffeine (athletes careers of PPARA genotypes intron 7 rs4253778 CC and Leu162Val rs1800206 CG), somatotrope (polymorphism rs8192678 of PPARGC1A, polymorphism rs11549465 C>T of HIF1A gene), beta-blockers (carriers of the ACE DD genotype), insulin and its mimetics (rs11549465 C>T polymorphism of the HIF1A gene), cannabinoids (α, β and γ isoforms of PPAR), stimulants and narcotics (carriers of RBFOX1 rs7191721 G), anabolic steroids (athletes carrying EPOR that provide an advantage for physical effort). A number of drugs, supplements, hormones, flavonoids, vitamins and experimental therapeutic substances that are not on the WADA 2020 list may be the subject of future studies regarding their potential as doping substances, given that they have a stimulating action on exercise capacity in the case of particular genomes: cortisol blockers (carriers of the allele that produces alpha-actinin-3), carbohydrate and lipid supplements (polymorphism rs8192678 of PPARGC1A), quercetin (genotypes PPARA intron 7 rs4253778 CC and și PPARA Leu162Val rs1800206 CG), AMPD inhibitors (AMPD1 Gln12 carriers), folates (carriers of the MTHFR polymorphism rs1801131 C), nitrates (variants of NOS3 rs2070744 T), saroglizatar and lobeglitazone (carriers of the Pro12Ala polymorphism), thyroid hormones (variant EP441s, variant TSHR C), Tribulus terrestris (AR variant).

Performance-Enhancing Medicines in Sports: Legal Discussion

International Journal of Law, Government and Communication (IJLGC), 2019

Morally speaking, employing Performance-Enhancing Medicines (PEMs) in sports is not acceptable because using these medicines in sports competitions is associated with negative legal consequences. However, due to rapid advances in the genetic modification technologies, there is a fear that these therapeutic technologies have been applied to athletes (e.g., to prevent Myostatin from incapacitating skeletal muscle groups). Additionally, taking and giving performance-enhancing medicines are not only unethical, but such activities could even be illegal because of the dangerous side effects of drugs associated with it. The main issue that this paper is going to discuss in the absence of criminal provisions addressing the actions of doping generally and gene doping in many existing legal systems around the world. Another issue that this paper deals with is the lack of laboratory screening methods that can discover the occurrence of gene modifications. In this regard, this study attempts to...

Gene-doping: sport, values & bioethics

The ethics of human genetics. Strasburg: Council of …, 2003

This paper problematises the ethics of genetic modification (GM) in sport by outlining the perspectives of four organisations which have recently spent time considering the subject: the International Olympic Committee, the World Anti-Doping Agency, the United States President's Council on Bioethics, and the Australian Law Reforms Commission. The paper outlines scientific developments in genetic research, which might make realisable the genetic engineering of athletes. Subsequently, an overview of the varied perspectives of the four organisations is given, by articulating the moral discourses which is present through each. Various arguments are recognised as having importance in reaching a conclusion about whether GM in sport should be legal or not. In particular, these arguments comprise concerns about safety, fairness, and moral character. It is suggested that reflective bioethical investigations can assist the development of a coherent ethical policy about genetics in sport, by informing sports ethics with a rich basis of literature dealing with such central concepts as personhood, autonomy, and humanness. In conclusion, it is argued that sport ought not approach GM in a comparable manner to how it has approached doping, as GM entails a much wider breadth of ethical implications, often unrelated to sport.

Gene doping and genomic science in sports: where are we?

Bioanalysis, 2020

The misuse of sport-related gene transfer methods in elite athletes is a real and growing concern. The success of gene therapy in the treatment of hereditary diseases has been most evident since targets in gene therapy products can be used in healthy individuals to improve sports performance. Performing these practices threatens the sporting character of competitions and may pose potential health hazards. Since the World Anti-Doping Agency pronouncement on the prohibition of such practices in 2003, several researchers have been trying to address the challenge of developing an effective method for the detection of genetic doping. This review presents an overview of the published methods developed for this purpose, the advantages and limitations of technologies and the putative target genes. At last, we present the perspective related to the application of the detection methods in the doping control field.