Strategies of processing spatial information in survey and landmark-centred individuals (original) (raw)
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British Journal of Psychology, 2013
The present research investigates the role of individual differences in preference for adopting extrinsic frame of reference (EFR) in ability to represent mentally spatial information learned through survey and route descriptions. A sample of 191 participants (100 females and 91 males) was categorized as four groups with high (H-EFR), medium-high (MH-EFR), medium-low (ML-EFR) and low (L-EFR) preference. The groups listened to two spatial descriptions in survey and route perspectives, subsequently performing true/false verification and map drawing tasks. They also performed a number of visuo-spatial, verbal and geographical pointing tasks. Results showed a general better performance of the H-EFR group and of malesin comparison with lower-ability counterparts and females respectivelyin spatial text recall tasks and in other spatial measures. Moreover, spatial ability interacts with text perspective: in verification test the H-EFR group outperformed the lower groups in survey and route inferential sentences and in map drawing the superiority of H-EFR group was shown with survey (but not with route) text. Overall, the results suggest that individuals with high preference for extrinsic frame of reference are able to manage environment information in both spatial perspectives even if they prefer to express it in survey format. That preference is specifically sustained by spatial abilities.
Honors Thesis, National University of Singapore, 2011
Environmental representations have typically been categorized into procedural descriptions and survey knowledge. Based on recent findings about allocentric and egocentric encoding of spatial relations, we hypothesized that survey knowledge could be further classified into surveyallocentric and survey-egocentric representations (depending on which encoding the person uses). Our study examined the distinction in survey representations using map drawing task. The second goal was to examine how this distinction in environmental representations relates to individual differences in allocentric and egocentric spatial abilities, using spatial visualization and spatial orientation computerized tasks. The third goal was to explore how these environmental representations differ in landmark knowledge, using landmark recognition and landmark directional tasks. The map drawings were reliably classified into procedural, survey-allocentric, and survey-egocentric representations, based on the encoding of spatial relations. Individuals who drew survey-egocentric maps tended to perform more accurately and faster on egocentric spatial orientation task than those who drew procedural maps. Significant differences were found in accuracy and reaction times on landmark tasks between different types of landmarks: no-choice versus active, non-cultural versus cultural, permanent versus temporary, and scenes versus individual landmarks. There were no significant differences in landmark recognition and directional tasks between individuals with different environmental representations.
Individual differences in cognitive map accuracy: Investigating the role of landmark familiarity
Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology / Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 2019
Broad individual differences exist in the ability to create a cognitive map of a new environment. The current studies investigated whether familiarizing participants with to-be-learned target landmarks (Experiment 1) or target landmarks plus the order they would be encountered along routes (Experiment 2) before exploring the Silcton virtual environment would increase performance on tasks assaying spatial memory of Silcton. Participants in both experiments were randomly assigned to be pre-exposed either to information about target landmarks in Silcton or control landmarks on the university campus. In both experiments, participants explored Silcton via four prescribed routes and then performed a direction estimation task and a map building task based on memory for the locations of the target landmarks. In addition, participants completed the Spatial Orientation Test of perspective-taking. Pre-exposure to Silcton landmarks versus control landmarks did not affect scores on Silcton-based tasks in either experiment. Some sex differences in direction estimation were observed in Experiment 1 but not Experiment 2. While facilitating familiarity with landmarks did not improve cognitive map accuracy, both sex and perspective taking ability were found to contribute to individual differences in the ability to create a cognitive map. Public Significance Statement Individual differences in the ability to create a mental map of a novel environment have been demonstrated in the laboratory, but their origins are not well understood. It is possible that familiarizing individuals with the buildings and the routes in a new environment before they experience it may help them form a mental map. Such pretraining did not facilitate the accuracy of mental representations, and it seems likely that variation in spatial visualization abilities is a larger contributor to individual differences in mental map accuracy.
Spatial Cognition & Computation, 2005
Successful wayfinding requires accurate encoding of two types of information: landmarks and the spatial relations between them (e.g. landmark X is left/north of Y). Although both types of information are crucial to wayfinding, behavioral and neurological evidence suggest that they have different substrates. In this paper, we consider the nature of the difference by examining comprehension times of spatial information (i.e. route and survey descriptions) and landmark descriptions. In two studies, participants learned simple environments by reading descriptions from route or survey perspectives, half with a single perspective switch. On half of the switch trials, a landmark description was introduced just prior to the perspective switch. In the first study, landmarks were embellished with descriptions of visual details, while in the second study, landmarks were embellished with descriptions of historic or other factual information. The presence of landmark descriptions did not increase the comprehension time of either route or survey descriptions, suggesting that landmark descriptions are perspective-neutral. Furthermore, visual landmark descriptions speeded comprehension time when the perspective was switched, whereas factual landmark descriptions had no effect on perspective switching costs. Taken together, the findings support separate processes for landmark and spatial information in construction of spatial mental models, and point to the importance of visual details of landmarks in facilitating mental model construction.
Variations in cognitive maps: Understanding individual differences in navigation
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2014
There are marked individual differences in how effectively people construct cognitive maps in both real world and virtual environment settings (e.g., Blajenkova, Motes, & Kozhevnikov, 2005; Chai & Jacobs, 2010;. However, these individual differences are poorly understood and difficult to assess except by self report. In this study, we studied spatial learning in a virtual environment (VE) consisting of several buildings arrayed along two disconnected routes and investigated how acquisition of spatial knowledge relates to self-reported sense of direction on the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale (SBSOD) and psychometric measures of spatial ability. We also compared the pattern of results in the VE to findings from the real world environment on which the VE was modeled (Schinazi, Nardi, Newcombe, Shipley, & Epstein, in press). Results suggest that more accurate pointing between buildings on different routes correlates with self-reported navigation ability, validating the SBSOD. However, the SBSOD did not distinguish between participants who had more or less difficulty with pointing accurately between pairs of buildings on the same route. Comparing results from the VE to the real world revealed similar patterns of learning, despite higher overall accuracy in the real world. Thus, we confirm the existence of individual differences in the ability to construct a cognitive map of an environment, characterize these differences more completely than is so far possible with self-report, and introduce an objective behavioral measure of navigation ability that can be used as a research tool.
Cognitive styles and mental rotation ability in map learning
Cognitive Processing, 2013
In inspecting, learning and reproducing a map, a wide range of abilities is potentially involved. This study examined the role of mental rotation (MR) and verbal ability, together with that of cognitive styles in map learning. As regards cognitive styles, the traditional distinction between verbalizers and visualizers has been taken into account, together with a more recent distinction between two styles of visualization: spatial and object. One hundred and seven participants filled in two questionnaires on cognitive styles: the Verbalizer-Visualizer Questionnaire (Richardson in J Ment Imag 1: [109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122][123][124][125] 1977) and the Object-Spatial Imagery Questionnaire (Blajenkova et al. in Appl Cogn Psych 20:239-263, 2006), performed MR and verbal tests, learned two maps, and were then tested for their recall. It was found that MR ability and cognitive styles played a role in predicting map learning, with some distinctions within cognitive styles: verbal style favoured learning of one of the two maps (the one rich in verbal labels), which in turn was disadvantaged by the adoption of spatial style. Conversely, spatial style predicted learning of the other map, rich in visual features. The discussion focuses on implications for cognitive psychology and everyday cognition.
Goal-specific influences on the representation of spatial perspective
Memory & Cognition, 1999
In two experiments, subjects learned an unfamiliar campus environment, either by studying a map or by navigating. During acquisition, the subjects had one of two spatial goals: to learn the layout of the building (survey goal) or to learn the fastest routes between locations (route goal). Spatial memory was tested with several tasks, some assessing survey perspective processing and some assessing route perspective processing. Results indicate multiple influences on the representation of spatial perspective. Learning condition influenced performance. Individuals studying maps gave more accurate responses to some survey perspective tasks, whereas individuals navigating gave more accurate responses to some route perspective tasks. Spatial goals also influenced performance. Having a route goal enhanced performance on route perspective tasks; having a survey goal enhanced performance on survey perspective tasks. These findings are discussed in the context of research indicating flexibility when processing spatial perspective. Individuals can use spatial information from different perspectives, often doing so in a goal-directed manner.
Three Types of Environmental Representations and Individual Differences in Spatial Navigation
Master's Thesis, National University of Singapore, 2013
Official storage site: https://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/47243 Also available on ResearchGate (click on links) FOREWORD: This thesis presents finding from perspective-taking tasks (see Figs. 2 and 3) that were NOT published in Zhong & Kozhevnikov (2016). ABSTRACT (Revised): The current study proposed the existence of two subtypes of survey knowledge/representations: (i) “allocentric-survey” versus (ii) “egocentric-survey”. On one hand, the allocentric-survey representation was proposed as a third person representation abstracted/inferred from knowledge of landmarks, routes, and spatial relations between them. On the other hand, the egocentric-survey representation was proposed as a survey representation formed incrementally through an engagement of egocentric spatial updating, which involves the automatic and continuous updating of transient self-to-object relations as one navigates in space. Findings from study 1 suggested that egocentric survey representations were qualitatively different from allocentric survey representations as the former preserved information not only about spatial locations, but also about orientation. Two groups of sketchmap drawers exhibited comparable accuracy in representing the spatial layout of the learned route. However, sketchers of egocentric-survey maps were significantly faster on orientation and navigational pointing judgments than sketchers of allocentric-survey maps. In Study 2, a Navigational Strategy Questionnaire (NSQ) was designed. It included a novel scale assessing a preference for spatial updating navigational strategy and two traditional scales assessing survey based and procedural navigational strategies. Critically, the spatial updating scale exhibited predictive validity in relation to large scale navigational performance and related spatial updating strategy use to the formation of egocentric survey representations.
Gender effects in spatial orientation: cognitive profiles and mental strategies
Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2004
Experimental evidence and meta-analyses offer some support for gender-related differences in visuo-spatial ability. However, few studies addressed this issue in an ecological context and/or in everyday tasks implying spatial abilities, such as geographical orientation. Moreover, the relation of specific strategies and gender is still unclear. In the present investigation, we compared men and women in a newly designed battery of spatial orientation tasks in which landmark, route and survey knowledge were considered. In addition, four visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) tasks were presented. Significant differences favouring men in VSWM tasks were reported, supporting existing evidence. However, men and women did not significantly differ in orientation tasks performance. The patterns of correlation between working memory and spatial orientation tasks indicated that men and women used somewhat different strategies in carrying out the orientation tasks. In particular, active processes seem to play a greater role in females' performance, thus confirming the importance of this variable in interpreting gender effect in VSWM tasks. Altogether, results indicate that gender effects could well result from differences in cognitive strategies and support data indicating that adequate training could reduce or eliminate them.
Explaining sex differences in mental rotation: role of spatial activity experience
2013
Males consistently outperform females on mental rotation tasks, such as the Vandenberg and Kuse (1978) Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47(2), 599–604, mental rotation test (MRT; e.g. Voyer et al. 1995) in Psychological Bulletin, 117, 250–265. The present study investigates whether these sex differences in MRT scores can be explained in part by early spatial activity experience, particularly those spatial activities that have been sex-typed as masculine/male-oriented. Utilizing an online survey, 571 ethnically diverse adult university students completed a brief demographic survey, an 81-item spatial activity survey, and the MRT. Results suggest that the significant relation between sex of the participant and MRT score is partially mediated by the number of masculine spatial activities participants had engaged in as youth. Closing the gap between males and females in spatial ability, a skill linked to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics success, may be accomplished in part by encouraging female youth to engage in more particular kinds of spatial activities.