The production effect in paired-associate learning: Benefits for item and associative information (original) (raw)
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Experimental manipulation of prior experience: Effects on item and associative recognition
Memory, 2003
Frequency of exposure to very low-and high-frequency words was manipulated in a 3-phase (familiarization, study, and test) design. During familiarization, words were presented with their definition (once, four times, or not presented). One week (Experiment 1) or one day (Experiment 2) later, participants studied a list of homogenous pairs (i.e., pair members were matched on background and familiarization frequency). Item and associative recognition of high-and very low-frequency words presented in intact, rearranged, old-new, or new-new pairs were tested in Experiment 1. Associative recognition of very low-frequency words was tested in Experiment 2. Results showed that prior familiarization improved associative recognition of very low-frequency pairs, but had no effect on high-frequency pairs. The role of meaning in the formation of item-to-item and item-to-context associations and the implications for current models of memory are discussed.
The reminding effect: Presentation of associates enhances memory for related words in a list
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
One aspect of successful cognition is the efficient use of prior relevant knowledge in novel situations. Remindings-stimulus-guided retrievals of prior events-allow us to link prior knowledge to current problems by prompting us to retrieve relevant knowledge from events that are distant from the present. Theorizing in research on higher cognition makes much use of the concept of remindings, yet many basic mnemonic consequences of remindings are untested.
Adding new word associations to semantic memory: Evidence for two interactive learning components
Acta Psychologica, 1997
The addition of newly learned word associations to semantic memory was investigated in three experiments. In these experiments word pairs were repeatedly presented as prime-target pairs in a lexical decision task. Performance on repeated pairs (both pre-experimentally associated and initially unrelated pairs) was compared to that on neutral pairs. In Experiments 1 and 2* effects of prior study (episodic priming) were observed but since this episodic priming effect was equal for both conditions it could not be concluded that the new associations had been added to semantic memory. In Experiment 3 some evidence was found that the newly learned word associations had been added to semantic memory. This occurred only after presenting the word pairs for several trials in paired-associate learning. The results are interpreted as supporting a model that distin guishes two memory components that mediate the effects of new learning, an episodic and a semantic one.
The production effect in memory: Evidence that distinctiveness underlies the benefit
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2010
The production effect is the substantial benefit to memory of having studied information aloud as opposed to silently. MacLeod, Gopie, Hourihan, Neary, and Ozubko (2010) have explained this enhancement by suggesting that a word studied aloud acquires a distinctive encoding record and that recollecting this record supports identifying a word studied aloud as "old." This account was tested using a list discrimination paradigm, where the task is to identify in which of 2 studied lists a target word was presented. The critical list was a mixed list containing words studied aloud and words studied silently. Under the distinctiveness explanation, studying an additional list all aloud should disrupt the production effect in the critical list because remembering having said a word aloud in the critical list will no longer be diagnostic of list status. In contrast, studying an additional list all silently should leave the production effect in the critical list intact. These predictions were confirmed in 2 experiments.
Temporal associative processes revealed by intrusions in paired-associate recall
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2008
Although much is known about the factors that influence the acquisition and retention of individual paired associates, the existence of temporally defined associations spanning multiple pairs has not been demonstrated. We report two experiments in which subjects studied randomly paired nouns for a subsequent cued recall test. When subjects recalled nontarget items, their intrusions tended to come from nearby pairs. This across-pair contiguity effect was graded, spanning noncontiguously studied word pairs. The existence of such long-range temporally defined associations lends further support to contextual-retrieval models of episodic association.
The production effect in memory: multiple species of distinctiveness
Frontiers in psychology, 2014
The production effect is the difference in memory favoring words read aloud relative to words read silently during study. According to a currently popular explanation, the distinctiveness of aloud words relative to silent words at the time of encoding underlies the better memory for the former. This distinctiveness is attributable to the additional dimension(s) of encoding for the aloud items that can be subsequently used during retrieval. In this study we argue that encoding distinctiveness is not the sole source of distinctiveness and that, in fact, there is an independent source of distinctiveness, statistical distinctiveness, which may or may not work in harmony with encoding distinctiveness in influencing memory. Statistical distinctiveness refers to the relative size of a subset of items marked by a(ny) unique property. Silently read words can carry statistical distinctiveness if they form a salient minority on the background of a majority of vocalized words. We show that, whe...
Output interference in the recall of categorized and paired-associate lists
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 1980
that it extended to items in the fifth and sixth input positions. The conclusion that may be drawn from this experiment is that output interference is due only to a loss of information from primary memory (Waugh & Norman, 1965), and that there is no output interference in recall of information from secondary memory. Evidence from other paired associate experiments in which short lists were employed does not alter this conclusion (Arbuckle, 1967; Tulving & Arbuckle, 1966). The results of Experiment 4 in the present series constitute the first evidence of output interference in paired-associate recall in secondary memory, though in this instance the lists were relatively long (20 pairs) and were composed entirely of words. Evidence from other cued recall tasks also implicates the operation of output
Familiarity and Novelty of Stimulus and Response Terms in Paired-Associate Learning
Psychological Reports, 1963
The results of a 2 × 2 design varying the familiarity and novelty of stimulus and response terms in a paired-associate task confirmed the prediction that, in terms of the number of correct pairings, the order of the four treatments from highest to lowest is FF, NF, FN, and NN ( P < .01 for comparisons between any two treatments). An examination of this score and eight other dependent variables suggests that paired-associate learning is a complex set of interdependent processes. Altering one process by manipulating an independent variable appears to affect one or more other processes, as measured by the change in the dependent variables that reflect these processes.
Brain and behavior, 2012
Previous studies have shown that self-generated information is better remembered than information that has been read passively. To further examine this subsequent memory effect, we investigated the effect of five different linguistic relationships on memory encoding. Ninety subjects were administered 60 paired associates during an encoding condition: 30 of the second words from each pair were to be read aloud and 30 were to be self-generated from clues as to the correct word. Word pairs were composed of five linguistic relationships: category, rhyme, opposite, synonym, and association. Subsequently, subjects were presented with the words that were read or generated in a forced recognition memory task. Overall, reading accuracy was higher than generation accuracy during the encoding phase (all P < 0.001). During the recognition phase, subjects' performance was better on the generate than on the read conditions for opposite, synonym, category, and association relationships (all...