Online Appendix Causal Effects of Maternal Time-Investment on Children’s Cognitive Outcomes (original) (raw)
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Wage effects of motherhood: a double selection approach
Wage differentials between mothers and childless women are estimated correcting for the selectivity bias resulting from two double selection processes: firstly, the motherhood decision and the employment decision, and secondly the motherhood decision and the decision to be employed in a less demanding job. We use Dutch data on women's wages and construct an indicator for less demanding jobs. Our estimations indicate that the motherhood decision is strongly correlated with both employment and having a less demanding job. This suggests that ignoring these correlations will lead to inconsistent parameter estimations of wage equations. The selectivity corrected estimation of women's wage differentials indicate that a large part of the wage differential is composed by discrimination compared to estimations without correction for selectivity Draft version, June 13, 2003.We are grateful to Hans van Ophem for valuable comments.
Selection and the Distribution of Female Hourly Wages in the U.S
Cornell University - arXiv, 2018
We analyze the sources of changes in the distribution of hourly wages in the United States using CPS data for the survey years 1976 to 2016. We account for the selection bias from the employment decision by modeling the distribution of annual hours of work and estimating a nonseparable model of wages which uses a control function to account for selection. This allows the inclusion of all individuals working positive hours and thus provides a fuller description of the wage distribution. We decompose changes in the distribution of wages into composition, structural and selection effects. Composition effects have increased wages at all quantiles but the patterns of change are generally determined by the structural effects. Evidence of changes in the selection effects only appear at the lower quantiles of the female wage distribution. These various components combine to produce a substantial increase in wage inequality.
Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 2003
The motherhood wage penalty revisited: Experience, heterogeneity, work effort and work-schedule flexibility ABSTRACT: A wage penalty is regularly observed for working mothers. In this paper we use the NLSYW to revisit the motherhood wage penalty. Like other studies, we analyze the extent to which readily controlled human capital measures and individual heterogeneity reduce the measured penalty. We go further by using simple sample decomposition techniques to consider the role of sample composition, which changes as mothers of older children enter the work force.
Parental Labor Supply: Evidence from Minimum Wage Changes. Working Paper #103-19
2019
Declining labor force participation rates among less-educated individuals in the U.S. have been attributed to various causes, including skill-biased technical change, demand shocks induced by international competition, looser eligibility requirements for disability insurance, the opioid epidemic and the nature of child care and family leave policies. In this paper, we examine how the labor supply of parents of dependent children respond to minimum wage changes. We implement an event study framework and document a sharp rise in employment and earnings of parents after state minimum wage increases. We further show that these effects are concentrated among jobs that pay the minimum wage or slightly higher – high wage employment remains unaffected. Panel models find corresponding drops in welfare receipts, moreover, for single mothers, effects are larger for mothers of preschool age children. The results are consistent with a simple labor supply model in which means-tested transfers and...
Entry into motherhood: The effect of wages
Using the ECHP, we explored the determinants of having the first child in Spain. Our main goal was to study the relation between female wages and the decision to enter motherhood. Since the offered wage of non-working women is not observed, we estimate it and impute a potential wage to each woman (working and non-working). This potential wage enable us to investigate the effect of wages (the opportunity cost of time non-worked and dedicated to children) on the decision to have the first child, for both workers and non-workers. Contrary to previous results, we found that female wages are positively related to the likelihood of having the first child. This result suggests that the income effect overcomes the substitution effect when non-participants opportunity cost is also taken into account.
This study investigates the relationship between maternal employment and state-to-state differences in childcare cost and mean school day length. Pairing state-level measures with an individual-level sample of prime working-age mothers from the American Time Use Survey (2005–2014; n = 37,993), we assess the multilevel and time-varying effects of childcare costs and school day length on maternal full-time and part-time employment and childcare time. We find mothers’ odds of full-time employment are lower and part-time employment higher in states with expensive childcare and shorter school days. Mothers spend more time caring for children in states where childcare is more expensive and as childcare costs increase. Our results suggest that expensive childcare and short school days are important barriers to maternal employment and, for childcare costs, result in greater investments in childcare time. Politicians engaged in national debates about federal childcare policies should look to existing state childcare structures for policy guidance.
Easing the Constraints of Motherhood: The Effects of All‐Day Schools on Mothers' Labor Supply
Economic Inquiry, 2018
Low rates of female labor force participation (LFP) have been linked to the absence of childcare policies. This article examines the degree to which extending the school day by 3.5 hours in elementary schools, a large implicit childcare subsidy, affects LFP, the number of weekly hours worked, and the monthly earnings of females with elementaryschool-age children. To do so, we exploit within-individual variation in access to full-time schools and a rotating panel of households that contains 12 years of individual-level data on labor outcomes and sociodemographic characteristics. Results from long-difference models show that extending the school day increases mothers' labor supply, increasing LFP by 5.5 percentage points and the number of weekly hours worked by 1.8. Moreover, these increases are accompanied by a raise in monthly earnings. (JEL I25, J13, J22)
Selection, Investment, and Women's Relative Wages Over Time*
Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2008
In theory, growing wage inequality within gender should cause women to invest more in their market productivity and should differentially pull able women into the workforce. Our paper uses Heckman's two-step estimator and identification at infinity on repeated Current Population Survey cross sections to calculate relative wage series for women since 1970 that hold constant the composition of skills. We find that selection into the female full-time full-year workforce shifted from negative in the 1970s to positive in the 1990s, and that the majority of the apparent narrowing of the gender wage gap reflects changes in female workforce composition. We find the same types of composition changes by measuring husbands' wages and National Longitudinal Survey IQ data as proxies for unobserved skills. Our findings help to explain why growing wage equality between genders coincided with growing inequality within gender.
Three essays on labor economics
Chapter 1 investigates the labor market implications of single fatherhood. Samples from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics reveal that men experiencing single fatherhood after marital separation experience dramatic decreases in both labor hours and income. I identify the eects of marital separation for men with and without children and show that the decrease in income and hours for single fathers goes beyond those experienced by other separated men, likely due to the additional constraints on time and scheduling faced by single fathers. Chapter 2 estimates the eects of recent half day state Pre-Kindergarten programs on school attendance and mothers' labor supply. I show that state Pre-K programs have succeeded in increasing school attendance for some 4-5 year olds, and in this way have succeeded in their stated goal. However, I show that the introduction of these programs is also associated with decreased labor hours for mothers of eligible children.I show that the decrease in labor hours can be explained by the xed costs of childcare which cause may cause some mothers to decrease work from full-time hours to avoid having to pay for and arrange supplementary childcare after Pre-K has ended. Chapter 3 analyses the eectiveness of the National Science & Mathematics Access to Retain Talent Grant (SMART) in its goal of increasing the science and math preparation of college graduates. Although estimates are limited by a small sample size and imperfect observations of SMART eligibility, I do not nd evidence that iii program eligibility increases the number of declared science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors.