Plasma spectrometry in the earth sciences: techniques, applications and future trends (original) (raw)

Abstract

Jarvis, I. and Jarvis, K.E., 1992. Plasma spectrometry in the earth sciences: techniques, applications and future trends. In:

Figures (6)

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the sample introduction system used in many ICP-AES instruments. (After I. Jarvis and Jarvis, 1992.) The sample solution is pumped up a flexible capillary tube by a peristaltic pump into a concentric glass (Meinhard® ) nebuliser. The sample aerosol is sorted in a. spray chamber, and the finest droplets are carried by the Ar injector gas into the central capillary of a Fassel quartz glass torch. The aerosol is desolvated, vaporised, dissociated, ionised and excited in the Ar plasma fireball, which is maintained by a radiofrequency magnetic field. The wavelengths and intensities of the emission signal generated in the tail flame are measured by a conventional emission spectrometer.

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the sample introduction system used in many ICP-AES instruments. (After I. Jarvis and Jarvis, 1992.) The sample solution is pumped up a flexible capillary tube by a peristaltic pump into a concentric glass (Meinhard® ) nebuliser. The sample aerosol is sorted in a. spray chamber, and the finest droplets are carried by the Ar injector gas into the central capillary of a Fassel quartz glass torch. The aerosol is desolvated, vaporised, dissociated, ionised and excited in the Ar plasma fireball, which is maintained by a radiofrequency magnetic field. The wavelengths and intensities of the emission signal generated in the tail flame are measured by a conventional emission spectrometer.

Fig. 2. Generation and characteristics of an inductively coupled plasma. (After I. Jarvis and Jarvis, 1992.) a and b. The plasma is maintained by a 10-18 1 min~! flow of Ar coolant gas. The sample aerosol is carried by 0.5-1.5 1 min~! Ar injector gas into the core of the ICP, passing through the central annulus of a > 10,000-K fire- ball. Emission is measured in the 6200-6500-K area of the tail flame, 12-18 mm above the induction coil. c. The plasma is induced by radiofrequency magnetic fields generated by currents passing through a water-cooled copper induction coil. Electrons and ions produced in the plasma form circular eddy currents; resistance to this in- duced motion maintains a high-temperature plasma by ohmic heating.

Fig. 2. Generation and characteristics of an inductively coupled plasma. (After I. Jarvis and Jarvis, 1992.) a and b. The plasma is maintained by a 10-18 1 min~! flow of Ar coolant gas. The sample aerosol is carried by 0.5-1.5 1 min~! Ar injector gas into the core of the ICP, passing through the central annulus of a > 10,000-K fire- ball. Emission is measured in the 6200-6500-K area of the tail flame, 12-18 mm above the induction coil. c. The plasma is induced by radiofrequency magnetic fields generated by currents passing through a water-cooled copper induction coil. Electrons and ions produced in the plasma form circular eddy currents; resistance to this in- duced motion maintains a high-temperature plasma by ohmic heating.

Fig. 3. Schematic representations of two major types of ICP-AES spectrometers. (After I. Jarvis and Jarvis, 1992.) a. A Paschen-Runge polychromator, contains a fixed array of photomultiplier tubes set at predetermined analyte wave- jengths. The limited spectral range in the first order (typically 175-500 nm) of the conventional Paschen—-Runge mount- ing, is complimented by a flat-field mounting positioned with the Rowland circle. This additional mounting enables the determination of the alkali metals (K, Li, Na) which have their most sensitive lines in the 500-800-nm range. Such systems allow the simultaneous determination of up to 60 elements in <2 min. b. A Czerny-Turner monochromator, contains only one (or two inter-changeable) photomultiplier tube(s) combined with a movable diffraction grating. Rotation of the grating enables the system to scan through the entire 175—800-nm wavelength range or to drive sequentially to each analyte wavelength chosen. The inherent flexibility and lower capital cost of such systems is offset bv extended analvsis times ( ~ 10 min. for a typical trace-element programme ).

Fig. 3. Schematic representations of two major types of ICP-AES spectrometers. (After I. Jarvis and Jarvis, 1992.) a. A Paschen-Runge polychromator, contains a fixed array of photomultiplier tubes set at predetermined analyte wave- jengths. The limited spectral range in the first order (typically 175-500 nm) of the conventional Paschen—-Runge mount- ing, is complimented by a flat-field mounting positioned with the Rowland circle. This additional mounting enables the determination of the alkali metals (K, Li, Na) which have their most sensitive lines in the 500-800-nm range. Such systems allow the simultaneous determination of up to 60 elements in <2 min. b. A Czerny-Turner monochromator, contains only one (or two inter-changeable) photomultiplier tube(s) combined with a movable diffraction grating. Rotation of the grating enables the system to scan through the entire 175—800-nm wavelength range or to drive sequentially to each analyte wavelength chosen. The inherent flexibility and lower capital cost of such systems is offset bv extended analvsis times ( ~ 10 min. for a typical trace-element programme ).

A schematic of a typical ICP-MS system is shown in Fig. 5. The sample, typically in the form of a solution, is introduced into the plasma with the injector Ar flow. As the sam- ple enters the region of higher temperature, it is rapidly volatilised, dissociated, excited and finally ionised. The analyte emerges from the mouth of the torch as a mixture of atoms, ions, undissociated molecular fragments and unvo- atilised particles. The ions are extracted from he central channel through a sampling cone aperture. The cone is normally fabricated from high-purity nickel or has a nickel body with a platinum tip. In both cases, nickel is the pre- ferred material, principally because it is dura- ble and available at reasonable cost. However, he type and concentration of acid used during sample introduction must be considered care- fully, since strong acids (>5% v/v) increase the rate of erosion of the cone surface. In ad- dition, certain acids such as H,SOu, for exam- ple, are particularly aggressive even in rela- . Anelectrostatic lens system is placed behind the skimmer in the region of high vacuum (5-10~-° mbar). The function of the lens stack is to focus the ions which then pass into the mass spectrometer, where a quadrupole sys- tem acts as a mass filter. A stable ion path ex- ists along the axis of the four quadrupole rods for ions of only one mass at a time, so by vary- ing the RF and DC potentials on these rods, ions of selected masses are allowed through to the detection system in a sequential mode. This operation is carried out very rapidly and the quadrupole is usually ‘‘scanned” through a range of masses between 100 and 1600 cpm. The resolution of such systems is sufficient to Fig. 5. Schematic of a typical ICP-MS instrument. (After Gray, 1989.) The sample introduction system is essentially identical to that in ICP-AES (Fig. |), although in ICP-MS the torch is oriented horizontally rather than vertically. Ions are extracted from the plasma through a nickel sampling cone into an area of low pressure (/). Focussing of the ion beam is accomplished using a nickel skimmer and a series of electrostatic lenses in an area of intermediate vacuum (2). The focussed ion beam ultimately enters the high vacuum (3) of a quadrupole mass spectrometer, where ions are rapidly sorted and counted using an electron multiplier detector.

A schematic of a typical ICP-MS system is shown in Fig. 5. The sample, typically in the form of a solution, is introduced into the plasma with the injector Ar flow. As the sam- ple enters the region of higher temperature, it is rapidly volatilised, dissociated, excited and finally ionised. The analyte emerges from the mouth of the torch as a mixture of atoms, ions, undissociated molecular fragments and unvo- atilised particles. The ions are extracted from he central channel through a sampling cone aperture. The cone is normally fabricated from high-purity nickel or has a nickel body with a platinum tip. In both cases, nickel is the pre- ferred material, principally because it is dura- ble and available at reasonable cost. However, he type and concentration of acid used during sample introduction must be considered care- fully, since strong acids (>5% v/v) increase the rate of erosion of the cone surface. In ad- dition, certain acids such as H,SOu, for exam- ple, are particularly aggressive even in rela- . Anelectrostatic lens system is placed behind the skimmer in the region of high vacuum (5-10~-° mbar). The function of the lens stack is to focus the ions which then pass into the mass spectrometer, where a quadrupole sys- tem acts as a mass filter. A stable ion path ex- ists along the axis of the four quadrupole rods for ions of only one mass at a time, so by vary- ing the RF and DC potentials on these rods, ions of selected masses are allowed through to the detection system in a sequential mode. This operation is carried out very rapidly and the quadrupole is usually ‘‘scanned” through a range of masses between 100 and 1600 cpm. The resolution of such systems is sufficient to Fig. 5. Schematic of a typical ICP-MS instrument. (After Gray, 1989.) The sample introduction system is essentially identical to that in ICP-AES (Fig. |), although in ICP-MS the torch is oriented horizontally rather than vertically. Ions are extracted from the plasma through a nickel sampling cone into an area of low pressure (/). Focussing of the ion beam is accomplished using a nickel skimmer and a series of electrostatic lenses in an area of intermediate vacuum (2). The focussed ion beam ultimately enters the high vacuum (3) of a quadrupole mass spectrometer, where ions are rapidly sorted and counted using an electron multiplier detector.

Fig. 6. Mass spectra for some platinum-group elements (Ru, Rh, Pd, Ir, Pt) and Au for the regions 99-114 and 188-198 m/z. The sample contains 200 ng ml~! (parts per billion) of each element and has been prepared in a 0.5 Mf HCI matrix. Note the clear resolution of each iso- tope from its neighbours, and the different responses of different isotopes of each element, which are consistent with their natural relative abundances. Ion detection is usually accomplished using electron multiplier detectors. The ability to count individual ions, coupled with very low background signals, result in excellent sensi- tivity for nearly all elements in the periodic ta- ble. Unfortunately, at very high count rates the response of these detectors becomes non-lin- ear due to counting losses in the electronics. Variable dead times (a factor which corrects for non-linearity in response) also occur de- pending on the age of the detector. Data han- dling is carried out using a PC, and facilities are normally available for reporting of data and

Fig. 6. Mass spectra for some platinum-group elements (Ru, Rh, Pd, Ir, Pt) and Au for the regions 99-114 and 188-198 m/z. The sample contains 200 ng ml~! (parts per billion) of each element and has been prepared in a 0.5 Mf HCI matrix. Note the clear resolution of each iso- tope from its neighbours, and the different responses of different isotopes of each element, which are consistent with their natural relative abundances. Ion detection is usually accomplished using electron multiplier detectors. The ability to count individual ions, coupled with very low background signals, result in excellent sensi- tivity for nearly all elements in the periodic ta- ble. Unfortunately, at very high count rates the response of these detectors becomes non-lin- ear due to counting losses in the electronics. Variable dead times (a factor which corrects for non-linearity in response) also occur de- pending on the age of the detector. Data han- dling is carried out using a PC, and facilities are normally available for reporting of data and

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