Pharmacologic approaches for volume excess in acute kidney injury (AKI) (original) (raw)
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Fluid Management and Use of Diuretics in Acute Kidney Injury
Advances in Chronic Kidney Disease, 2013
Critically ill adult patients at risk for or with acute kidney injury (AKI) require careful attention to their hemodynamic status because hypotension and hypovolemia may contribute to or worsen kidney injury. Increasing evidence suggests that isotonic crystalloids should be used instead of colloids for initial expansion of intravascular volume in patients at risk for AKI or with AKI, such as those with sepsis, septic shock, or trauma. The timing and amount of volume to be administered to prevent AKI and other organ damage is still debated, but an aggressive fluid repletion in the early setting is probably beneficial. However, fluid overload has also been associated with increased mortality and reduced rate of kidney recovery in observational studies in critically ill patients with AKI. Diuretics may prevent or treat fluid overload and may also affect kidney function. The efficacy of these procedures in critically ill AKI patients need to be confirmed with randomized controlled trials. This review focuses on early volume resuscitation, overall fluid management, and use of diuretics in critically ill adult patients at risk for or with AKI and their effect on mortality and kidney function in this setting.
New Insights on Intravenous Fluids, Diuretics and Acute Kidney Injury
Nephron Clinical Practice, 2008
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is commonly and increasingly encountered in patients with critical illness. Fluid therapy is the cornerstone for the prevention and management of critically ill patients with AKI. New data have emerged that have raised concern that specific types of fluid (i.e. hydroxyethylstarch) may either contribute to or exacerbate AKI. Additional data have accumulated to indicate that the unnecessary accumulation of fluid and volume overload can negatively impact clinical outcomes. This finding may be further compounded in patients with oliguric AKI where solute and free water elimination are impaired. Diuretic therapy in AKI remains controversial. However, diuretic use is common, despite a paucity of evidence to show improved clinical outcomes. There are few therapeutic interventions proven to impact the clinical course and outcome of critically ill patients with established AKI. Current management strategies center largely on supportive care, with rapid resuscitation...
Volume management by renal replacement therapy in acute kidney injury
2008
Management of fluid balance is one of the basic but vital tasks in the care of critically ill patients. Hypovolemia results in a decrease in cardiac output and tissue perfusion and may lead to progressive multiple organ dysfunction, including the development of acute renal injury (AKI). However, in an effort to reverse pre-renal oliguria, it is not uncommon for patients with established oliguric acute renal failure, particularly when associated with sepsis, to receive excessive fluid resuscitation, leading to fluid overload. In patients with established oliguria, renal replacement therapy may be required to treat hypervolemia. Safe prescription of fluid loss during RRT requires intimate knowledge of the patient's underlying condition, understanding of the process of ultrafiltration and close monitoring of the patient's cardiovascular response to fluid removal. To preserve tissue perfusion in patients with AKI, it is important that RRT be prescribed in a way that optimizes fluid balance by removing fluid without compromising the effective circulating fluid volume. In patients who are clinically fluid overloaded, it is equally important that the amount of fluid removed be as exact as possible. Fluid balance errors can occur as a result of inappropriate prescription, operator error or machine error. Some CRRT machines have potential for significant fluid errors if alarms can be overridden. Threshold values for fluid balance error have been developed which can be used to predict the severity of harm. It is important that RRT education programs emphasize the risk associated with fluid balance errors and with overriding machine alarms.
Fluid Overload in Critically Ill Patients with Acute Kidney Injury
Blood Purification, 2010
Fluid overload may occur in critically ill patients as a result of aggressive resuscitation therapies. In such circumstances, persistent fluid overload must be avoided since it does not benefit the patient while it may be harmful. In the septic patient, early volume expansion seems to be beneficial. Beyond that threshold, when organ failure develops, fluid overload has been shown to be associated with worse outcomes in multiple disparate studies. One well-designed randomized controlled trial showed the benefit of a conservative fluid management strategy based on limited fluid intake and use of furosemide in such patients. Use of diuretics should be only short term as long as it is effective, generally at high doses, while avoiding simultaneous utilization of nephrotoxins such as aminoglycosides. Multiple randomized controlled trials have not shown benefit in the use of diuretics, either to prevent AKI or to treat established AKI. If fluid overload (defined as fluid accumulation >...
Fluid Management in Acute Kidney Injury
Journal of Intensive Care Medicine, 2012
Fluid management in critical illness has undergone extensive reevaluation in the past decade. Since a significant percentage of critically ill patients develop acute kidney injury (AKI), optimal fluid management is even more paramount to prevent the ill effects of either underhydration or overhydration. The concepts of early goal-directed fluid therapy (EGDT) and conservative late fluid management permeate current clinical research, and the independent association between fluid accumulation and mortality has been repeatedly demonstrated. A number of prospective randomized trials are planned to provide an adequately powered assessment of the effect of EGDT or earlier renal replacement therapy initiation in patients with, or at risk for AKI. The aim of this analytical review is to use existing clinical and physiological studies to support a 3-phase model of fluid management in the critically ill patient with AKI.
Fluid balance and acute kidney injury
Nature Reviews Nephrology, 2010
| Intravenous fluids are widely administered to patients who have, or are at risk of, acute kidney injury (AKI). However, deleterious consequences of overzealous fluid therapy are increasingly being recognized. Salt and water overload can predispose to organ dysfunction, impaired wound healing and nosocomial infection, particularly in patients with AKI, in whom fluid challenges are frequent and excretion is impaired. In this Review article, we discuss how interstitial edema can further delay renal recovery and why conservative fluid strategies are now being advocated. Applying these strategies in critical illness is challenging. Although volume resuscitation is needed to restore cardiac output, it often leads to tissue edema, thereby contributing to ongoing organ dysfunction. Conservative strategies of fluid management mandate a switch towards neutral balance and then negative balance once hemodynamic stabilization is achieved. In patients with AKI, this strategy might require renal replacement therapy to be given earlier than when more-liberal fluid management is used. However, hypovolemia and renal hypoperfusion can occur in patients with AKI if excessive fluid removal is pursued with diuretics or extracorporeal therapy. Thus, accurate assessment of fluid status and careful definition of targets are needed at all stages to improve clinical outcomes. A conservative strategy of fluid management was recently tested and found to be effective in a large, randomized, controlled trial in patients with acute lung injury. Similar randomized, controlled studies in patients with AKI now seem justified.
Volume Management in Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy
Seminars in Dialysis, 2009
Volume management is an integral component of the care of critically ill patients to maintain hemodynamic stability and optimize organ function. The dynamic nature of critical illness often necessitates volume resuscitation and contributes to fluid overload particularly in the presence of altered renal function. Diuretics are commonly used as an initial therapy to increase urine output; however they have limited effectiveness due to underlying acute kidney injury and other factors contributing to diuretic resistance. Continuous renal replacement techniques (CRRT) are often required for volume management. In this setting, successful volume management depends on an accurate assessment of fluid status, an adequate comprehension of the principles of fluid management with ultrafiltration, and clear treatment goals. Complications related to excessive ultrafiltration can occur and have serious consequences. A careful monitoring of fluid balance is therefore essential for all patients. This review provides an overview of the appropriate assessment and management of volume status in critically ill patients and its management with CRRT to optimize organ function and prevent complications of fluid overload.
The role of medications and their management in acute kidney injury
Integrated Pharmacy Research and Practice, 2015
Prior to 2002, the incidence of acute renal failure (ARF) varied as there was no standard definition. To better understand its incidence and etiology and to develop treatment and prevention strategies, while moving research forward, the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative workgroup developed the RIFLE (risk, injury, failure, loss, end-stage kidney disease) classification. After continued data suggesting that even small increases in serum creatinine lead to worse outcomes, the Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN) modified the RIFLE criteria and used the term acute kidney injury (AKI) instead of ARF. These classification and staging systems provide the clinician and researcher a starting point for refining the understanding and treatment of AKI. An important initial step in evaluating AKI is determining the likely location of injury, generally classified as prerenal, renal, or postrenal. There is no single biomarker or test that definitively defines the mechanism of the injury. Identifying the insult(s) requires a thorough assessment of the patient and their medical and medication histories. Prerenal injuries arise primarily due to renal hypoperfusion. This may be the result of systemic or focal conditions or secondary to the effects of drugs such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, calcineurin inhibitors (CIs), and modulators of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Renal, or intrinsic, injury is an overarching term that represents complex conditions leading to considerable damage to a component of the intrinsic renal system (renal tubules, glomerulus, vascular structures, interstitium, or renal tubule obstruction). Acute tubular necrosis and acute interstitial nephritis are the more common types of intrinsic renal injury. Each type of injury has several drugs that are implicated as a possible cause, with antiinfectives being the most common. Postrenal injuries that result from obstruction block the flow of urine, leading to hydronephrosis and subsequent damage to the renal parenchyma. Drugs associated with tubular obstruction include acyclovir, methotrexate, and several antiretrovirals. Renal recovery from drug-induced AKI begins once the offending agent has been removed, if clinically possible, and is complete in most cases. It is uncommon that renal replacement therapy will be needed while recovery occurs. Pharmacists can play a pivotal role in identifying possible causes of drug-induced AKI and limit their toxic effect by identifying those most likely to cause or contribute to injury. Dose adjustment is critical during changes in renal function, and the pharmacist can ensure that optimal therapy is provided during this critical time.
Critical Care, 2012
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common condition and, even when mild, is associated with mortality and morbidity . During critical illness, AKI is most frequently observed in the settings of sepsis and after surgery . In these contexts, fl uid resuscitation (FR) is almost universally employed to maintain or increase cardiac output and organ perfusion. Creatinine-related variables and urine output are often targeted during resuscitation as surrogates of adequacy of organ perfu sion in general and to prevent AKI. Understanding the relationship between FR, resuscitation goals and AKI is therefore important to develop a rational approach to FR strategies in acute illness.