“The Cimmerians: their origins, movements and their difficulties” (original) (raw)
The Cimmerian Problem Re-Examined: the Evidence of the Classical Sources
The Cimmerian Problem Re-Examined: the Evidence of the Classical Sources Of all the nomadic peoples who were present in the Caspian steppes and in Western Asia in the 1st millenium BC none has probably caused historians and archaeologists so much trouble than the Cimmerians. The history of the Cimmerians is still being discussed and reconstructed in different ways . The whole problem contains lots of misunderstandings mainly due to the fact that the most important source groups, i. e. literary and archaeological evidences, have been examined on the basis of some aprioric assumptions not all of which are immidiately obvious. In the following paper an attempt will be made to discuss the problem of the Cimmerian presence in Southeastern Europe and related aspects as seen in the light of classical testimonies. One of these questions, the problem of an alleged migration of the Cimmerians from the North Pontic steppes into Central and Western Europe, requires consideration. The thesis about western movements of the Cimmerians has had wide repercussions in historical, archaeological and philological studies as well . The well documented history of the Cimmerians in Western Asia is not the topic of this paper but it provides important fixing points for a reconstruction of the whole development of that people. In exploring the classical testimonies related to the Cimmerians, it is hoped that a greater insight into the complex history of the earliest known ethnic entities of Southeastern Europe may be achieved. The history of the Cimmerians in Europe can be discussed mainly from the point of view of classical sources, for the basic evidence for the study of this people are testimonies of the Greek and Roman authors . On the other hand, valuable evidence for the Cimmerians in Western Asia is provided by Oriental, mainly Assyrian, records . The written evidence can be to some extent supplemented by archaeological data from the Ponto-Caspian steppes, the Caucasus area and Western Asia . However, the presently available archaeological materials do not allow any convincing hypothesis about the character of genuine Cimmerian culture. It is due to the fact that archaeological interpretations depend on historical premises and the latter, basing on fragmentary and contradictory testimonies, still do not enable us to give definitive answers to certain important questions about Cimmerian history.
The ‘Western Cimmerians’ and the first Greek settlers in the Troad
The ‘Western Cimmerians’ and the first Greek settlers in the Troad, 2021
Thasos et la mer Noire aux époques classique et hellénistique: 'grandeur et décadence' d'un circuit économique. Thibaut Castelli From the tower of Kronos to the island of Achilles: placing Leuce in the Greek conception of heroic apotheosis ..
This paper constitutes a historical study and research completed gradually over a number of years. The author, after first describing the national character and the campaigns of the Cimmerians from the northwestern shores of the Black Sea (Western Cimmerians) and the Cimmerians from north Caucasus and the coast of the Caspian Sea (Eastern Cimmerians) through Asia Minor during 8th -7th BCE, focuses his study on the toponyms that the Cimmerians left behind in the historical arena. He focuses the attention on Asia Minor and in particular on the area of Lydia, on the township of Lygda/Dygda. The Cimmerians, who were primarily a nomadic people of the Euro-Asian steppes, settled in Asia Minor mainly in areas that favoured the development of stock-raising after having subjugated the local populations. One of these areas was the valley of Cayster in the area of the Lygda, south of the renowned Sardis, capital of the Lydian state. The Cimmerians, under the command of their king Lygdamis, undertook two invasions into Lydia. The nomenclature of the Cimmerians kings is associated with the morphology and the phonology of the eastern Iranian languages. Specifically the origin of the name “Dugdamme”, according to Herodotus as Dygdamis/Lygdamis (greek: Δύγδαμις/Λύγδαμις), is linked through the morphology of this group of languages with the phrase “duγδa- maiši” which means “owner of sheep for the production of milk”. For more than a century of their presence in Asia Minor the Cimmerians inevitably left their genetic-biological seal on their children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren who later integrated with other nations. Toponyms that derive from the nomenclature of the Cimmerians have continued up until the present day in Asia Minor, Azov, Crimea and the Caucasus. The Cimmerians and the Scythians had a similar culture so when the ancient historians wrote about the great conquests of the Scythians on their campaigns in the Near East they also had in mind and included the Cimmerians. The references by Herodotus and Strabo are indicative of the campaigns and the presence of the Cimmerians in Asia Minor and also of their relationship with the Greeks of its western shores. According to Stephanus of Byzantium the Cimmerians ruled the city Antandros in the area of Troas for about a century. Plinius mentions the city of Lygdamum in the area of Mysia.The references by Karl Buresch to Dygda/Lydga, who relies on Byzantium sources, are indicative of the origins of the name. Another event, from ancient times and in particular since the establishment of the Lydian state, is the settlement of Iranian colonists in the area of Hypaipa, very close to Lygda, who preserved up until the Hellenistic times their language, their folk traditions and their religious rituals and at the same time they influenced not only the Cimmerian invaders but also the local populations of Asia Minor. The Cimmerians’ invasions also left their imprints on the Greeks, mainly on those living in Ionia and Lydia. From the research the author comes to the conclusion of his research which is proven during his analysis of the linguistic origins of the toponym of the Lygda in Lydia. The findings were assisted not only by texts by ancient Greek historians and writers but also by sources from the later history of Asia Minor, maps of the area and personal accounts.
On the Question of Cimmerian Imports and Imitations in Central Europe
Europe during the Early Iron Age has to be studied together with the origin of nomadism in the steppe area of the continent. The early 1 st millennium BC was characterized by the formative development of nomad pastoralism throughout the Eurasian Steppes. During this time, specialized nomadic economies developed based on the horse, so that most of steppe regions were occupied by groups of nomads with their mobile way of life. Cimmerians played a vital part in the transmission of the horse riding and in the development of a new bridle technique. Both innovations were to have a major impact on European history.
HISTORY, ARСHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE CAUCASUS, 2023
This study explores the medieval history of the Circassians and other Northwest Caucasus peoples through a novel perspective by investigating the interactions between the Circassians of Trans-Kuban and the Mamluks of Burji (1382–1517). The primary focus is on the examination of the writings of the late 15th-century Genoese traveler Giorgio Interiano. Interiano’s observations, captured in his “Remarkable Account,” shed light on the lifestyle, customs, and appearance of the Adyghe nobility during a significant period of Circassian Mamluks’ active visits to their native lands in the Trans-Kuban region, coinciding with the reign of Sultan al-Ashraf Qaytbay (1468–1496) in Cairo. Interiano’s depictions align well with descriptions of Burji Mamluk traditions found in Arabic sources, suggesting a direct transmission of these traditions to the original carriers – Mamluks returning from the Sultanate. The article also examines the reasons behind the Circassian Mamluks’ visits to Trans-Kuban. During the analysis of Interiano’s work, texts from contemporary Arab historians of the Burji Sultanate were drawn, including al-‘Aini (d. 1451), Ibn Taghri Birdi (d. 1469), al-Sahawi (d. 1497), Ibn Shahin al-Malati (d. 1514), and Ibn Iyas (d. 1524).
Asseria, 2010
"This article analyses a group of individuals in the territory of Roman Liburnia, who chose a Liburnian cippus as their tombstone. Their ethnicity and civic status have been analyzed, which led to the conclusion that these monuments were erected equally by immigrants and those who might have been either of immigrant or native origin, as opposed to the few erected by confirmed members of autochthonous population. Cippi belonging to the slaves were equally scarce. Liburnian cippi were erected also by freedmen, but not by soldiers. The analysis has shown that Liburnian cippi had been one of the most expensive Liburnian epigraphical monuments, which indicates that they were a specific status symbol of the wealthy population of Liburnia, regardless of their ethnicity, social class or civic status. U radu se analizira grupa ljudi s područja antičke Liburnije koja je za nadgrobni spomenik odabrala liburnski cipus. Analizirani su njihova etnička pripadnost i građansko-pravni status, pri čemu se zaključilo da su te spomenike podjednako često postavljali doseljenici i oni koji su mogli biti bilo starosjedilačkog bilo doseljeničkog porijekla, za razliku od malobrojnih sigurno identificiranih pripadnika starosjedilačkog stanovništva. Podjednako su malobrojni cipusi koji su pripadali robovima. Liburnske cipuse postavljali su i oslobođenici, no ne i vojnici. Analiza je pokazala da su liburnski cipusi među najskupljim epigrafskim spomenicima Liburnije, što sve vodi ka zaključku da su oni bili svojevrstan statusni simbol imućnih žitelja Liburnije, neovisno o njihovoj etničkoj pripadnosti, društvenom sloju ili građansko-pravnom statusu."
Recent research reveals what we term a ‘discourse of certainty’ regarding an assumed predominant socio-economic and cultural impact of Late Bronze Age Cypriotes or Mycenaeans on the local peoples of Sardinia and/or Sicily and Italy, not least in terms of a systematic, seaborne trading network extending from the Cyprus to the Tyrrhenian Sea. ‘Minimalist’ approaches to such a phenomenon have a long and venerable but more limited pedigree. In this study, we question why minimalist views have been so summarily dismissed in much current literature that seeks to evaluate an eastern Mediterranean presence or influence in the central Mediterranean. We focus on Sardinia, and on the range of Cypriot or ‘Cypriot-type’ materials found there. We consider the nature of the Cypriot–Sardinian relationship, and suggest that we should decouple foreign objects from foreign agents. We question several of the perceived Cypriot influences on Sardinian artefacts, and consider possible alternative mechanisms and routes of exchange between the east and central Mediterranean. We outline and discuss the array of presumed or actual Cypriot artefacts found on Sardinia, and argue that these do not add up to a ‘significant’ corpus of Late Cypriot materials and connections. Recenti ricerche indicano come sia riconoscibile un predominante ipotetico impatto socioeconomico e culturale cipriota o miceneo sulle popolazioni locali della Sardegna e/o della Sicilia e dell’Italia nella Tarda Età del Bronzo, non da ultimo anche come conseguenza di un network commerciale marino che si estendeva da Cipro al mar Tirreno. Approcci di tipo ‘minimalistico’ a questo fenomeno hanno un pedigree prestigioso e consistente, seppure più limitato. In questo studio si intende discutere le ragioni per le quali le visioni minimaliste sono state così sommariamente rigettate in buona parte della letteratura corrente che cerca di valutare una presenza o influenza mediterranea orientale nel Mediterraneo centrale. Ci si focalizza in particolar modo sulla Sardegna e sui materiali ciprioti o di ‘tipo cipriota’ lì rinvenuti. Si prende in considerazione la natura delle relazioni sardo-cipriote e si avanza l’ipotesi che si dovrebbero disgiungere gli oggetti stranieri dagli ‘agenti’ stranieri. Si mettono in discussione molte delle influenze cipriote supposte/percepite sui manufatti sardi e si considerano possibili meccanismi alternativi e diversi percorsi di scambio tra il Mediterraneo orientale e centrale. Si delinea e discute inoltre la gamma di manufatti ciprioti presunti o effettivi rinvenuti in Sardegna e si sostiene come questi concorrano realmente a non delineare affatto un significativo corpus di materiali e connessioni tardo ciprioti.
Between Persia and China: Whence the Cimmerians Came
Research Developments in Arts and Social Studies Vol. 1, 2022
The main cultural and historical processes in the Ancient World were determined by Eurasian communication of the Early Nomads, which combined remote regions and civilizations, forming a branched of the trans-continental channels of distribution excellence, and inventions of various goods, which stimulated the evolution, development, and production of its own vehicles. This assumption is based on a thorough examination of relevant written, pictorial, and archaeological sources; facts support the notion that the Cimmerians of the inland areas originated in Central Asia, as well as evidence of widespread chariot and cavalry use. The historical Cimmerians are identified by the author as carriers of Karasuk archaeological culture and its derivatives.
Ciutats mediterrànies: la mobilitat i el desplaçament de persones = Mediterranean towns: mobility and displacement of people, ed. Flocel Sabaté, 2021
Biblioteca de Catalunya. Dades CIP Congrés sobre Ciutats Mediterrànies (3r : 2020 : Barcelona, Catalunya), autor Ciutats mediterrànies: la mobilitat i el desplaçament de persones = Mediterranean towns: mobility and displacement of people.-Primera edició.-(Publicacions de la Presidència. Sèrie major ; 10) Ponències i conferències presentades al Congrés Internacional "Ciutats Mediterrànies: mobilitat i desplaçament de persones" celebrat a Barcelona els dies 19-21 de febrer de 2020.-Referències bibliogràfiques.-Textos en català, italià, castellà, anglès i francès ISBN 978-84-9965-638-0 I. Sabaté, Flocel, 1962-editor literari II. Union académique internationale. III. Institut d'Estudis Catalans. IV. Institut Europeu de la Mediterrània. V. Títol: Ciutats mediterrànies: la mobilitat i el desplaçament de persones. VI. Títol: Mediterranean towns: mobility and displacement of people VII. Col•lecció: Publicacions de la Presidència. Sèrie major ; 10 1. Ciutats-Mediterrània, Regió-Història-Congressos. 2. Cultura mediterrània-Història-Congressos. 3. Mediterrània, Regió-Emigració i immigració-Història-Congressos. 911.375(4-13+6-17)(091)(063) 8(4-13+6-17)(091)(063) 314.7(4-13+6-17)(091)(063) Els textos han estat sotmesos a un procés d'avaluació externa revisat pel consell científic del projecte de recerca Les villes méditerranéennes: les facteurs de développement. Analyse diachronique, transversale et multidisciplinaire, de la Union Académique Internationale (UAI-85).