Global patterns of domestic cannabis cultivation: Sample characteristics and patterns of growing across eleven countries (original) (raw)
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Understanding global patterns of domestic cannabis cultivation
Drugs and Alcohol Today, 2012
Purpose – Unlike other plant-based drugs, cannabis is increasingly grown within the country of consumption, requires minimal processing before consumption, and can be easily grown almost anywhere using indoor or outdoor cultivation techniques. Developments in agronomic technologies have led to global growth in domestic cultivation, both by cannabis users for self- and social-supply, and by more commercially-oriented growers. Cross-national research is needed to better understand who is involved in domestic cultivation, the diversity in cultivation practices and motivations, and cultivators' interaction with the criminal justice system and cannabis control policies. Design/methodology/approach – The article introduces the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC), describes its evolution and aims, and outlines the methodology of its ongoing cross-national online survey of cannabis cultivation. Findings – Despite differing national contexts, the GCCRC successfully developed a core questionnaire to be used in different countries. It accommodates varying research interests through the addition of optional survey sections. The benefits to forming an international consortium to conduct web-based survey research include the sharing of expertise, recruitment efforts and problem-solving. Research limitations/implications – The article discusses the limitations of using non-representative online sampling and the strategies used to increase validity. Originality/value – The GCCRC is conducting the largest cross-national study of domestic cannabis cultivation to date. The aim is not only to better understand patterns of cannabis cultivation and how they differ between countries but also to build upon online engagement methodology with hidden populations.
Small-Scale Cannabis Growers in Denmark and Finland
European Addiction Research, 2011
To compare domestic cannabis cultivation in Denmark and Finland to describe national characteristics in small-scale cannabis growing. A Web survey conducted among small-scale cannabis growers in Denmark (June to November 2008) and Finland (May to June 2009). Current cannabis growers (Denmark, 401; Finland, 1,054). Comparisons in regard to social background, growing history, practices, purposes and motives of growing, and perceptions of risks. Cannabis was cultivated primarily for own use, but sharing with friends and avoiding criminal circles also were significant motives for growing. Finnish growers prioritized indoor cultivation, whereas the Danes were more in favor of open-air plantations. Risks of getting caught by the police were observed to be greater in Finland. Growing for medical purposes was twice as prevalent in Finland as in Denmark. Cannabis growing is a stronger and more novel phenomenon in Finland than in Denmark, but both countries have been influenced by international trends. Finnish and Danish small-scale cannabis cultivators can be considered to be ideologically oriented lifestyle growers. Differences in the magnitude of the phenomenon may reflect differences in the availability and quality of cannabis in national drug markets. The Internet had promoted the spreading of the trend.
The globalisation of cannabis cultivation: a growing challenge
International Journal of Drug Policy, 2015
Global patterns of cannabis cultivation have followed a fascinating development, from highly concentrated production in certain developing countries to decentralized production in almost every country around the world (UNODC, 2014). Historically, the spread of cannabis cultivation across the globe reflected the industrial utility of hemp; the widespread use of cannabis as a recreational drug did not appear until much later (Abel, 1980; Booth, 2003). It is with the emergence of modern patterns of cannabis use in the developed world that we have seen major changes in patterns of cannabis pro-duction. As demand for cannabis increased globally, fuelled by the developments of the “counter-culture” of the 1960s and 1970s, so cultivation in the developing world began to take on new dimensions. Firstly, cultivation increased in many traditional growing regions as exportation to the consumer markets of the industrialized world became an attractive option. Secondly, in response to global demand, countries such as Morocco and Mexico became large-scale producers of cannabis and major suppliers to, respectively, European and American consumers, despite not having the traditions of cannabis cultivation found in Asia, the Middle-East or the Caribbean (Gooberman, 1974; UNODC, 2003; UNODC, 2005;Moreno, 1997).A third phase in the evolution of cannabis production has been the increase in cultivation across the industrialised world. From Europe to the Americas and Oceania, import substitution in the cannabis market has been noticed in almost every developed country (UNODC, 2014; Decorte, Potter, & Bouchard, 2011). Although some small-scale cultivation probably has almost as long a history as cannabis use in the west, widespread small-scale cultivation and larger-scale commercial production only begins to appear towards the end of the twentieth century. In some countries the levels of domestic cultivation have reached the stage where self-sufficiency in cannabis markets has largely been attained (Leggett, 2006; Bouchard, 2008; Jansen, 2002).
Multinational overview of cannabis production regimes
2013
is an independent, not-for-prof it policy research orga nisation t hat a ims to improve polic y a nd decisionma k ing for t he public interest t hough resea rch a nd a na lysis. R A ND's publications do not necessarily ref lect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors.
World Wide Weed: Global trends in cannabis cultivation and its control
For the majority of its history, the cultivation of cannabis did not stand out, at least compared to the cultivation of other illegal plants. Cannabis plantations, like coca bush or opium poppy plantations, were typically large in size, grown by local farmers in a handful of developing (producing) countries, processed and then exported to industrial (consuming) nations. While cocaine and heroin are still produced in a handful of developing countries, cannabis cultivation is increasingly universal. From Europe to the Americas and Oceania, import substitution in cannabis markets has been noticed in almost every developed country around the world, with a notable aversion for discrimination. Geographical, technological, cultural and economic factors help to explain why (indoor and outdoor) domestic cultivation is well established, and why the nature and extent of cultivation varies so dramatically across the western, developed nations. As we start the second decade of the 21st century, the new cannabis industry continues to fascinate both casual and academic observers of the drug scene. Researchers around the world have become increasingly interested in the phenomenon, aiming to describe, and potentially explain, the rapid switch from importation to domestic production in their own countries. In bringing together some of the world's leading experts on cannabis cultivation this book contains sixteen chapters that take an interdisciplinary look at global trends in cannabis cultivation. It will serve as an exemplar for wider discussions of key theories and concepts relating to the spread not just of cannabis cultivation, but also of illegal markets more generally, the actors that operate within these markets and the policies and practices that are employed in response to developments within these markets.
The globalization of ( domestic ) cannabis cultivation 1
2011
Cannabis cultivation is spreading around the world, a trend that has accelerated at an impressive pace over the past 25 years. Beginning in the 1980s in some countries and the 1990s in others, gradually smaller quantities of cannabis were being intercepted in many of the major ports and airports of the industrialized world. At the same time, the police and the media in dozens of different countries were reporting the discovery of more and more cannabis plants over more and more cultivation sites – first in outdoor, then in indoor settings. Researchers slowly but surely became interested in the phenomenon, aiming to describe, and potentially explain, the rapid switch from importation to domestic production in their own countries. As we start the second decade of the 21 st century, the new cannabis industry continues to fascinate both casual and meticulous observers of the drug scene. At least two characteristics make this fundamental change in cannabis markets particularly interestin...
Characteristics of cannabis cultivation in New Zealand and Israel
Drugs and Alcohol Today
Purpose-The purpose of this paper is to explore the characteristics of small-scale cannabis cultivation in New Zealand and Israel. Design/methodology/approach-An online survey of predominantly small-scale cannabis cultivators had previously been conducted in 11 countries in 2012/2013. The same core online survey was subsequently conducted in New Zealand and Israel in 2016/2017, and comparisons made with the original 11 countries. Findings-Only around one third of the New Zealand and Israeli cannabis growers had sold cannabis, and the majority of these did so only to cover the costs of cultivation. The median number of cannabis plants cultivated per crop by the New Zealand and Israeli growers was five and two, respectively. The leading reasons provided for growing cannabis by both the New Zealand and Israeli growers were to provide cannabis for personal use and to share with others. A higher proportion of New Zealand than Israeli growers reported growing cannabis for medicinal reasons. A total of 16 per cent of the New Zealand and 17 per cent of Israeli growers had come into contact with the police due to their cannabis cultivation. The findings suggest small-scale cannabis cultivation in New Zealand and Israel is largely a means of "social supply" of cannabis, and this is consistent with the findings from the original 11 countries. The higher incidence of growing cannabis for medicinal purposes in New Zealand may reflect the limited official access to medical cannabis. Significant minorities of small-scale cannabis growers in both countries had contact with police, putting them at risk of the negative consequences of a criminal conviction. Originality/value-To date, the research into cannabis cultivation has largely consisted of studies of individual countries. However, given the global popularity of cannabis use, and the recent spread of cannabis cultivation to countries that traditionally have not produced cannabis, via utilisation of indoor growing techniques, there is now a strong case for international comparative research. Following the success of the surveys in the original 11 countries, New Zealand and Israeli members of the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium international collaboration chose to undertake surveys in their own countries in 2016/2017.
MONITORING DRUG USE IN THE DIGITAL AGE: STUDIES IN WEB SURVEYS. EMCDDA Insights, 2022
Worldwide, patterns of cannabis cultivation have shifted from production for international markets concentrated in certain developing countries, to decentralised production in almost every country. In response to the synchronous expansion of cannabis cultivation in many industrialised countries, cross-national research is needed to develop a better understanding of the characteristics of those involved in cannabis cultivation. This need for further research forms the context within which the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC) was created and the International Cannabis Cultivation Questionnaire (ICCQ) was developed. The ICCQ was developed to bridge the gap in international comparative research, as early empirical studies on cannabis cultivation in the global north focused on large-scale, commercially oriented growers, or examined small samples. This paper presents some of the key findings from the first wave of the ICCQ, the methodological lessons learned from implementing online surveys targeted at drug producers and the policy implications of the survey results. As this study shows, the survey has generated important substantive findings about cannabis cultivation, along with policy insights and methodological lessons, that would likely have been unattainable through other methods.