Situational influences on gender differences in agency and communion (original) (raw)
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The dynamics of masculine-agentic and feminine-communal traits: Findings from a prospective study
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2003
A reciprocal impact hypothesis posits an influence of gender-related traits (agency and communion) on role enactment and a reciprocal impact of role enactment on gender-related traits, for both men and women. Specifically, in this study it was predicted that agency influences career success and career success influences agency. In addition, the reciprocal influence of communion and family roles was examined. A prospective study with almost 2,000 university graduates, who were tested after graduation and 1.5 years later, clearly supported the reciprocal impact hypothesis for agency and career success. Communion influenced family roles, but there was no reciprocal influence. Implications for theories of career success and of sex and gender are discussed.
European Journal of Social Psychology, 2008
In past research, the presentation of men and women in the same social role has eliminated gender stereotypical ratings of greater agency and lesser communion in men compared with women. The social-role interpretation of such findings is challenged from the shifting-standards perspective, which suggests that the application of within-sex judgmental standards to men and women in roles may have masked underlying gender stereotypes. To clarify this issue, 256 participants judged an average man or woman portrayed as an employee, homemaker, or without role information on agentic and communal traits. These judgments were given on subjective scales that were vulnerable to shifting standards (trait ratings) or on common rule measures that restrain shifting standards (estimates of test scores). As predicted from the shifting-standards perspective, judgments of greater agency in men than women disappeared in the presence of role information only on the subjective scales, which enabled shifts to within-sex standards. As predicted from the social-role perspective, judgments of greater communion in women than men disappeared in the presence of the homemaker role on both the subjective and common rule measures. We discuss the implications of these results for understanding judgments of role occupants' agency and communion.
Male and female in organizational behavior
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2002
The human division of male and female sexes has profound unacknowledged consequences for behavior in organizations. Sex is not simply an individual difference (like eye color), but is an essential part played in life with others. This essay ®nds sex to be the main organizing principle of human life. Bringing this fact to light, the essay shows how we can begin to understand many perplexing problems of reconciling men and women in organizations today. Copyright #
2013
The aim of this study was to assess patterns of power displays in mixed-gender teams. Participants for this study included 216 university students who were randomly assigned to 36 mixed-gender teams for the purpose of discussing two business-related cases. Conversational interruptions were used as a measure of power displays. The findings indicate that team gender composition and perceived gender biases in the task can influence patterns of interruption behavior. In addition, the use of such power displays was shown to be negatively correlated with leadership rankings in the team for both men and women. Numerous studies of gender dynamics in work teams have considered the relative distribution of power and influence among male and female group members, and the behavioral consequences of such distributions (e.g., Grob, Myers & Schuh, 1997; Karakowsky & Elangovan, 2001; Ridgeway & Smith-Lovin, 1999). Conversational activity is a useful domain for examining power and status effects in organizational contexts, even though little attention has been given to how individuals display relative power at the face-to-face level (Morand, 2000). The study of conversation among men and women in organizations is particularly important because of the potential for conversation to create and sustain gender inequality in the workplace (Martin, 1992; Smith-Lovin & Robinson, 1991). Consequently, a number of researchers have assessed the role of verbal behaviors (e.g., frequency of speech initiations and total amount of speech) as indicative of gender differences in power displays between men and women (eg., Dovidio et al, 1988; Grob et al, 1997). There is ample research evidence to suggest that verbal interruptions can be viewed as a mechanism of power and dominance in conversation because they constitute a violation of the current speaker's right to speak) and because they can be used to control the subject of conversation (Anderson & Leaper, 1998; Aries, 1996). The notion of interruption behavior as a manifestation of power and dominance has been drawn upon to make sense of research findings which indicate that men more actively engage in interruption behavior compared to women (e.g., Zimmerman and West, 1975; Case, 1988; Craig and Pitts, 1990). However, there is evidence refuting the claim that men are more dominant in mixed-gender discussions with regard to interruptive behavior (e.g., James and Clarke , 1993; Marche & Peterson, 1993). Moreover, a number of studies have reported that women, in fact, may engage in more interruptive behavior compared to men (e.g., Bilous & Krauss, 1988; Smeltzer and Watson, 1986). Unfortunately, there have been few attempts to resolve contradictory findings with regard to alleged gender differences in mixed-gender settings. Inherent in the contradictory findings is the general lack of a systematic approach to the Hypothesis 1 Male group members in male-dominated groups will engage in higher levels of interruption behavior compared to their female counterparts in female-dominated groups. The research cited above suggests that work groups which are numerically dominated by one gender are more likely to reinforce behavior traditionally associated with that gender. On the other hand, those individuals in numerical minority positions will be less reliant on their traditional, socialized gender-roles and will be more likely to adopt the roles or behaviors of their numerically dominant counterparts. This is consistent with the assertions of Kanter's (1977a, 1977b, 1980) model of proportional representation which suggests that the numerical representation of men and women can directly influence behavior in group settings. Kanter (1977a, b) asserted that when a group member exists in the numerical minority (based on gender or ethnicity) he/she will tend to feel isolated from the numerical majority (Kanter, 1977a) and consequently may engage in activities which serve to reduce feelings of isolation and powerlessness. For example, Eagly & Johnson (1990) suggested that women in male-dominated environments adopt male styles in order to avoid losing authority and position. This also offers an explanation for the tendancy of women, in mixed-gender groups, to exhibit greater levels of stereotypically masculine-associated behavior (acting more assertively, becoming more task-oriented, etc.) compared to women in gender-segregated work-groups who will exhibit greater levels of stereotypically feminine-associated behavior (communal or socio-emotional) (e.g., Maccoby, 1990). With regard to conversational styles-women tend to masculinize their conversation in the presence of male counterparts (e.g., Fitzpatrick, Mulac & Dindia, 1995; Coates, 1986). Other researchers have, similarly, found that both men and women decrease their genderpreferential style in conversational behavior in mixed-gender dyads (e.g., Mulac, Wiemann, Widenmann & Gibson, 1988). The research outlined above suggests that when either men or women are in the numerical minority in a group, they will adapt their conversational style to match that of the numerical majority. Based on this notion, we predict that numerical minority males (in female-dominated groups) will exhibit lower levels of interruption behavior compared to their male-counterparts in male-dominated groups. Similarly, numerical minority women (in male-dominated groups) will be more likely to adopt the masculine norm-and display greater levels of interruption behavior compared to their female counterparts in female-dominated groups. All these assertions are summarized in the following series of hypotheses. Hypothesis 2 Male group members in numerical minority positions will engage in lower levels of interruption behavior compared to males in numerical majority positions. Hypothesis 3 Female group members in numerical minority positions will engage in higher levels of interruption behavior compared to females in numerical majority positions. According to expectation states theory or status characteristics theory (Berger, Rosenholtz & Zelditch, 1980) group members judge their relative skills and abilities in attaining group goals. External or diffuse status characteristics, such as race, age, and gender can be used by group members to form initial expectations about the relative competencies of individuals working on a group task. While status in task-oriented groups may be based on external or diffuse status characteristics such as gender, more direct information about competence can have a greater impact ASAC 2002 Kai Lamertz Halifax, N.S. Concordia University SOCIAL INFLUENCE EFFECTS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR The study presented in the paper argues that the enactment of a role as organizational member by employees involves social influence processes on what types of OCB to perform. Different influence mechanisms in different social relationships are shown to predict behavioral similarity for OCB that benefit individuals only or OCB that benefit the collective.
Testing a Model of Socially Desirable and Undesirable Gender-Role Attributes
2000
A recently outlined model of gender-role attributes incorporates two complimentary notions: (1) that possessing too little agency or communion (i.e., undersocialization) is undesirable and (2) that too much agency or communion unmitigated by the other (i.e., oversocialization) is undesirable. The present study sought to confirm the relationships proposed in this model between desirable agentic and communal characteristics and these undesirable gender-role constructs. A group of mostly Caucasian undergraduates completed measures of socially desirable and undesirable gender-role attributes. Structural equation modelling was used to confirm the proposed gender-role model. Results showed that the socially desirable gender-role trait components were related to the undesirable components in the manner predicted by the differentiated multidimensional gender-role model.
Social Role Theory of Sex Differences - Eagly, Wood & Johannesen-Schmidt
What causes sex differences and similarities in behavior? At the core of our account are societal stereotypes about gender. These stereotypes, or gender role beliefs, form as people observe male and female behavior and infer that the sexes possess corresponding dispositions. For example, in industrialized societies, women are more likely to fill caretaking roles in employment and at home. People make the correspondent inference that women are communal, caring individuals. The origins of men's and women's social roles lie primarily in humans' evolved physical sex differences, specifically men's size and strength and women's reproductive activities of gestating and nursing children, which interact with a society's circumstances and culture to make certain activities more efficiently performed by one sex or the other. People carry out gender roles as they enact specific social roles (e.g., parent, employee). Socialization facilitates these sex-typical role performances by enabling men and women to develop appropriate personality traits and skills. Additionally, gender roles influence behavior through a biosocial set of processes: hormonal fluctuations that regulate role performance, self-regulation to gender role standards, and social regulation to others' expectations about women and men. Biology thus works with psychology to facilitate role performance.
Previous research has consistently shown that females score higher on measures of nurturant gender stereotyped behaviour than males; and males score higher on measures of instrumental gender stereotyped behaviour than females. Typically, instrumentality and nurturance are measured in relation to general functioning and have resulted in the facility to classify respondents in terms of the fourfold classification of instrumental, nurturant, undifferentiated, and androgynous. Previous conceptualisations of sexual stereotyping suggest that it functions in a trait-like manner. This research investigates the consistency of sex role stereotyped behaviour across three settings. The three measures of setting specific sex role stereotypes were completed by each of the 33 female (mean age = 32.79; SD = 7.06) and 16 male (mean age = 39.63; SD = 10.11) respondents. Comparison of means indicated that respondents were more likely to be instrumental at work and at home, compared with social settings and more nurturant at home compared with social and work settings. Males were consistently more instrumental than females but least so in the home setting. By comparison, female respondents were more likely to be nurturant at home, and least nurturant at work. Females were consistently more nurturant than males but least discrepant in the home setting. Results will be interpreted in reference to the operationalization, representation, and meaning of the consistency of gender stereotypes.
Psychological Reports, 1982
Sunammy.-The studg examines the degree to which traditional sex differences in behavioral interaction in groups obtain even in a sample of very bright, career-oriented men and women who are similar in respect to a variety of personality attributes and personal aspirations. 21 experimental groups were studied, 7 all-male, 6 all-female, and 8 mixed-sex groups. Groups were composed of 5 or 6 members. Each group had 40 min. to discuss an ethical dilemma and come to a consensus decision. The data indicated that, while rates of interaction departed from traditional sex-role stereotypes, with females dominating the mixed groups verbally, interaction styles and nonverbal postures remained sex-role stereotypic. Males devoted a greater proportion of their interaction ro task behavior, i.e., giving opinions, suggestions, and information, and the females to reactions, i.e., agreements and disagreements. Males exceeded females in displays of nonverbal postures associated with dominance. Most behavioral measures were not affected by the sex composition of the group. Implicstions of these findings for work settings are discussed. Past research has demonstrated that men and women behave differently in groups. Men have been reported to initiate more interaction than women in
Gender Role Conflict in Men as a Predictor of Self-Ratings of Behavior on the Interpersonal Circle
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 2000
role may be influenced 10 mtCt lnteq>er-w behavior that is unemo-t iona! and lmCOrnmwUcativeinre~lioNIUpt,,., well '"'.act in I WI~lq I I dominate his environrru~:nt. and other people. If lrW!, this stereotypll;al '\ hGslilt-dorniNnt interpersolll1 profile for lr.IIdilloNlly KJCilliud l1\I$'" _ culine roles ""'y have important impliaotioN for understanding the types of in~beN.viors elicited from othm botl\ in significant re1ollonShipsllld in the therapeutic: relitioNhip (Kieler, 19S3 1 1988).TIoerefore.-the pwpoH Ofthisillldy~to~IN re10ticlnslUp of~pnder ro\econflict (i.e.. ripd KJCi'!ized ..wes-m-roIts thallHd to inte,persor.alllld intrIperwnaI confIltt; O'Neil Helms.Gi-I blot. [)o,vid. &: Wri~19&6) and interpulOPAl beNYior all rq=-ImWd by IN Ir.teIpersorlil Cirde.
1984
Sex Differences in Task Behaviors, Social Behaviors and Influence as a Function of Sex Composition of Dyads and Instructions to Compete or Cooperate February, 1984 Linda Carli, B.A., University of Connecticut M.S., University of Massachusetts Ph.Q, University of Massachusetts Directed by: Professor Ivan Steiner Sex differences in small -group behaviors have been attributed to the higher status of males. This argument suggests that sex differences should be larger in mixed-sex interactions, when sex acts as a diffuse status characteristic. Another explanation is that males and females modify their behavior so that it corresponds to the behavior they expect from other group members. This hypothesis predicts larger sex differences in same-sex interactions. In this study, sameand mixed-sex dyads discussed topics on which the members of the dyads disagreed. Videotapes of their behavior were used to measure task and social contributions and disagreements. Selfreports of opinions were used...