Inflammatory markers in salt sensitive hypertension (original) (raw)

Increased Levels of Atherosclerosis Markers in Salt-Sensitive Hypertension

American Journal of Hypertension, 2006

Background: Salt sensitivity in essential hypertension is associated with both endothelial dysfunction and increased cardiovascular risk. We evaluated several serum markers of atherosclerosis and endothelial function in a group of essential hypertensive patients classified on the basis of their salt sensitivity.

Association between salt sensitivity and target organ damage in essential hypertension

2000

Cardiovascular events occur more frequently in sodium-sensitive patients with essential hypertension; recently, sodium sensitivity was shown to be a cardiovascular risk factor independently of other classic factors such as blood pressure and cigarette smoking This study examined the relationship between salt sensitivity status and target organ damage in hypertensive patients. Ninety-six patients (35 men, 61 women) with moderate essential hypertension were studied for salt sensitivity status and the presence of target organ damage, including hypertensive retinopathy, serum creatinine, creatinine clearance, and urinary albumin excretion (UAE). Four different patterns of left ventricular anatomic adaptation were identified by categorizing patients according to the values of left ventricular mass index and relative wall thickness by the means of echocardiography. Fortyfive (47%) patients were shown to be salt-sensitive, in contrast to 51 (53%) salt-resistant subjects. Serum creatinine and UAE were significantly higher in the group of salt-sensitive hypertensives (P < < .05 and P < < .001, respectively). Left ventricular mass index (LVMI), relative wall thickness (RWT), and left atrial index (LAI) were all significantly higher in the group of saltsensitive hypertensive patients. Concentric hypertrophy was significantly more prevalent in the salt-sensitive group (37.8% v 11.8%; P < < .01). The prevalence of hypertensive retinopathy in the salt-sensitive group was 84.4%, in contrast to 59.6% in the salt-resistant group (P < < .01). Multivariate regression analysis revealed salt sensitivity as a significant predictor of LVMI, RWT, and UAE, independently of age, body mass index, and mean blood pressure. In conclusion, salt-sensitive hypertensive patients are more prone to develop severe hypertensive target organ damage that may enhance their risk of renal and cardiovascular morbidity.

Mechanisms of Salt-Sensitive Hypertension

Current Hypertension Reviews, 2015

Hypertension and its consequences, including heart failure, stroke, and kidney disease, are responsible for substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. Lifestyle changes, particularly sodium reduction, contribute to blood pressure control. However, not all individuals, whether normotensive or hypertensive, have the same susceptibility to the effects of salt. While a variety of approaches have been proposed to identify salt sensitive patients, there is no consensus for a definition of salt sensitivity and the precise mechanisms that explain their association are not yet fully understood. In this review we summarize the current understanding of the various pathophysiological mechanisms potentially involved in determining the salt sensitive phenotype. Genetic, neuronal, and immune alterations are reviewed. Additionally, we provide an update on the current knowledge of a new approach proposing the interstitium of the skin may act as a sodium reservoir. The role of dietary potassium on salt sensitive hypertension is also summarized.

Procalcitonin and the inflammatory response to salt in essential hypertension

Journal of Hypertension, 2013

Objectives: Inflammation is considered as a major effector of arterial damage brought about by salt excess in animal models. In a randomized, single masked, cross-over study in 32 uncomplicated essential hypertensive patients, we assessed the effect of a short-term low-salt diet on biomarkers of innate immunity [procalcitonin (PCT), interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a)], adiponectin (ADPN, an anti-inflammatory cytokine), and leptin.

Hypertension and the effect of dietary salt on inflammation: An interventional study

2020

ObjectiveHypertension and dietary salt are associated with inflammation in murine models. Studies in humans are scare and yet critical for the prevention and treatment of hypertension. This was an interventional study of 85 participants. Participants were instructed to follow a one week of low (4 g/day)- and high (9 g/day)-salt diet. BioLegend’s LEGENDplex™ bead-based immunoassay (USA) was used to quantify cytokine levels in plasma. Mann-Whitney, logistic regression and the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test were used to compare inflammation markers on low- and high-salt diets. The goal of this study was to determine the association between hypertension and inflammation and the effect of high dietary salt intake on pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in HIV positive and HIV negative individuals.Results43 participants among the 85 were hypertensive with equal sex distribution. Hypertensives had higher plasma levels of IL-6, IL-17A, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, monocyte count an...

Salt Sensitivity and Hypertension

Hypertension Journal, 2017

Enough evidence is there to link excess salt intake with cardiovascular and renal risks through hypertension though substantial evidence is also there to support that blood pressure is not always responding to salt. A lot of metabolic and neurohormonal factors determine this salt sensitivity in addition to genetic factors that determine substantial excretion of salt, so it may not increase blood pressure despite high intake. Salt-sensitive hypertensives have reduced levels of urinary endothelin, contributing to impaired natriuresis in response to a salt load. Salt load also increases free radicals and paradoxically decreases excretion of nitric oxide metabolites in salt-sensitive individuals. Type 2 diabetic patients with microalbuminuria are more salt sensitive as they have lower urinary excretion of nitric oxide. Nitric oxide deficiency facilitates endothelial dysfunction causing hypertension in salt-sensitive people, impeding vasodilation after salt load. Sympathetic nervous system plays a significant role in maintenance of blood pressure in response to salt through urinary and plasma levels of catecholamine and renal nerve activity. Apart from this, atrial natriuretic peptides (ANPs) and cytochrome P450-derived metabolites of arachidonic acid play significant roles. Insomnia and menopause increase salt sensitivity. Kidney provides sensitive and specific biomarkers for salt sensitivity in the form of proteomics, and renal proximal tubule cells, microribonucleic acid (miRNA), and exosomes are excreted into the urine apart from genetic biomarkers. A J-shaped curve relationship exists between salt intake and mortality. Salt intakes above and below the range of 2.5 to 6.0 gm/day are associated with high cardiovascular risk. Salt restriction can be a cause of hypertension in inverse salt-sensitive people. Available prevalence studies do not differentiate between salt-sensitive and salt-resistant populations, nor do they include normotensive salt-sensitive people who get their blood pressure raised in response to dietary salt. In these circumstances, salt sensitivity arises as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular mortality and morbidity.

Do high-salt microenvironments drive hypertensive inflammation?

American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology, 2017

Hypertension is a global epidemic affecting over one billion people worldwide. Despite this, the etiology of most cases of human hypertension remains obscure, and treatment remains suboptimal. Excessive dietary salt and inflammation are known contributors to the pathogenesis of this disease. Recently, it has been recognized that salt can accumulate in the skin and skeletal muscle, producing concentrations of sodium greater than the plasma in hypertensive animals and humans. Such elevated levels of sodium have been shown to alter immune cell function. Here, we propose a model in which tissue salt accumulation causes an immune response leading to renal and vascular inflammation and hypertension.

Salt Sensitivity: Challenging and Controversial Phenotype of Primary Hypertension

Current Hypertension Reports, 2016

Increases in life expectancy and cardiovascular adverse events in patients with hypertension highlight the need for new risk-reduction strategies to reduce the burden of degenerative diseases. Among the environmental factors, high salt consumption is currently considered the most important risk factor of hypertension. However, while high salt intake significantly raises blood pressure in some individuals, others do not show variation or even decrease their blood pressure. This heterogeneity is respectively classified as salt sensitivity and salt resistance. In this review, we propose salt sensitivity as a useful phenotype to unravel the mechanistic complexity of primary hypertension. The individual variability in blood pressure modification in response to salt intake changes derives from the combination of genetic and environmental determinants. This combination of random and non random determinants leads to the development of a personal index of sensitivity to salt. However, those genes involved in susceptibility to salt are still not completely identified, and the triggering mechanisms underlying the following development of hypertension still remain uncovered. One reason might be represented by the absence of a specific protocol, universally followed, for a standard definition of salt sensitivity. Another reason may be linked to the absence of common criteria for patient recruitment during clinical studies. Thus, the generation of a reliable approach for a proper recognition of this personal index of sensitivity to salt, and through it the identification of novel therapeutic targets for primary hypertension, should be one of the aspirations for the scientific community.

Salt sensitivity: Concept and pathogenesis

Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 1998

Almost two decades ago, the existence of a subset of essential hypertensive patients, who were sensitive (according to the increase in blood pressure levels) to the intake of a diet with a high salt content, was described. These patients are characterized by an increase in blood pressure and in body weight when switched from a low to a high sodium intake. The increase in body weight is due to the incapacity of the kidneys to excrete the whole intake of sodium until renal perfusion pressure (mean blood pressure) attains a level that is able to restore pressure-natriuresis relationship to values that enable the kidney to excrete the salt ingested or administered intravenously. Salt sensitivity does not seem to depend on the existence of an intrinsic renal defect to handle sodium, but on the existence of subtle abnormalities in the regulation of the sympathetic nervous system, the renin-angiotensin system or endothelial function. It is also relevant that organ damage secondary to arterial hypertension, has been shown in animal models and in hypertensive humans sensitive to a high salt intake to be significantly higher when compared with that of salt-resistant animals or humans. Interestingly, in humans, salt sensitivity has been shown to correlate with microalbuminuria, an important predictor of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, which correlates with most of the cardiovascular risk factors commonly associated with arterial hypertension. One of these factors is insulin resistance, that usually accompanies high blood pressure in overweight and obese hypertensives. Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinism are present in a significant percentage of hypertensive patients developing cardiovascular symptoms or death. For these reasons, therapy of arterial hypertension must be directed, not only to facilitate the lowering of BP level, but also, to halt the mechanisms underlying the increase in BP, when salt intake is increased. Furthermore, therapy must preferably improve the diminished insulin sensitivity present in salt-sensitive subjects that contribute independently to increased cardiovascular risk.