THE ATMOSPHERES OF THE HOT-JUPITERS KEPLER-5b AND KEPLER-6b OBSERVED DURING OCCULTATIONS WITH WARM-SPITZER AND KEPLER (original) (raw)
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The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 2011
This paper reports the discovery and characterization of the transiting hot giant exoplanet Kepler-17b. The planet has an orbital period of 1.486 days, and radial velocity measurements from the Hobby-Eberly Telescope show a Doppler signal of 419.5 +13.3 −15.6 m s −1 . From a transit-based estimate of the host star's mean density, combined with an estimate of the stellar effective temperature T eff =5630 ± 100 from high-resolution spectra, we infer a stellar host mass of 1.061 ± 0.067 M ⊙ and a stellar radius of 1.019 ± 0.033 R ⊙ . We estimate the planet mass and radius to be M P = 2.450 ± 0.114 M J and R P = 1.312 ± 0.018 R J . The host star is active, with dark spots that are frequently occulted by the planet. The continuous monitoring of the star reveals a stellar rotation period of 11.89 days, 8 times the the planet's orbital period; this period ratio produces stroboscopic effects on the occulted starspots. The temporal pattern of these spot-crossing events shows that the planet's orbit is prograde and the star's obliquity is smaller than 15 • . We detected planetary occultations of Kepler-17b with both the Kepler and Spitzer Space Telescopes. We use these observations to constrain the eccentricity, e, and find that it is consistent with a circular orbit (e < 0.0011). The brightness temperatures of the planet the infrared bandpasses are T 3.6 µm =1880 ± 100 K and T 4.5 µm =1770 ± 150 K. We measure the optical geometric albedo A g in the Kepler bandpass and find A g = 0.10 ± 0.02. The observations are best described by atmospheric models for which most of the incident energy is re-radiated away from the day side.
ATMOSPHERE AND SPECTRAL MODELS OF THE KEPLER -FIELD PLANETS HAT-P-7b AND TrES-2
The Astrophysical Journal, 2010
We develop atmosphere models of two of the three Kepler-field planets that were known prior to the start of the Kepler mission (HAT-P-7b and TrES-2). We find that published Kepler and Spitzer data for HAT-P-7b appear to require an extremely hot upper atmosphere on the dayside, with a strong thermal inversion and little day-night redistribution. The Spitzer data for TrES-2 suggest a mild thermal inversion with moderate day-night redistribution. We examine the effect of nonequilibrium chemistry on TrES-2 model atmospheres and find that methane levels must be adjusted by extreme amounts in order to cause even mild changes in atmospheric structure and emergent spectra. Our best-fit models to the Spitzer data for TrES-2 lead us to predict a low secondary eclipse planet-star flux ratio (∼ < 2×10 −5) in the Kepler bandpass, which is consistent with what very recent observations have found. Finally, we consider how the Kepler-band optical flux from a hot exoplanet depends on the strength of a possible extra optical absorber in the upper atmosphere. We find that the optical flux is not monotonic in optical opacity, and the non-monotonicity is greater for brighter, hotter stars.
THE HIGH ALBEDO OF THE HOT JUPITER KEPLER-7 b
The Astrophysical Journal, 2011
Hot Jupiters are expected to be dark from both observations (albedo upper limits) and theory (alkali metals and/or TiO and VO absorption). However, only a handful of hot Jupiters have been observed with high enough photometric precision at visible wavelengths to investigate these expectations. The NASA Kepler mission provides a means to widen the sample and to assess the extent to which hot Jupiter albedos are low. We present a global analysis of Kepler-7 b based on Q0-Q4 data, published radial velocities, and asteroseismology constraints. We measure an occultation depth in the Kepler bandpass of 44±5 ppm. If directly related to the albedo, this translates to a Kepler geometric albedo of 0.32±0.03, the most precise value measured so far for an exoplanet. We also characterize the planetary orbital phase lightcurve with an amplitude of 42±4 ppm. Using atmospheric models, we find it unlikely that the high albedo is due to a dominant thermal component and propose two solutions to explain the observed planetary flux. Firstly, we interpret the Kepler-7 b albedo as resulting from an excess reflection over what can be explained solely by Rayleigh scattering, along with a nominal thermal component. This excess reflection might indicate the presence of a cloud or haze layer in the atmosphere, motivating new modeling and observational efforts. Alternatively, the albedo can be explained by Rayleigh scattering alone if Na and K are depleted in the atmosphere by a factor of 10-100 below solar abundances.
WARM SPITZER OBSERVATIONS OF THREE HOT EXOPLANETS: XO-4b, HAT-P-6b, AND HAT-P-8b
The Astrophysical Journal, 2012
We analyze Warm Spitzer/Infrared Array Camera observations of the secondary eclipses of three planets, XO-4b, HAT-P-6b, and HAT-P-8b. We measure secondary eclipse amplitudes at 3.6 μm and 4.5 μm for each target. XO-4b exhibits a stronger eclipse depth at 4.5 μm than at 3.6 μm, which is consistent with the presence of a temperature inversion. HAT-P-8b shows a stronger eclipse amplitude at 3.6 μm and is best described by models without a temperature inversion. The eclipse depths of HAT-P-6b can be fitted with models with a small or no temperature inversion. We consider our results in the context of a postulated relationship between stellar activity and temperature inversion and a relationship between irradiation level and planet dayside temperature, as discussed by Knutson et al. and Cowan & Agol, respectively. Our results are consistent with these hypotheses, but do not significantly strengthen them. To measure accurate secondary eclipse central phases, we require accurate ephemerides. We obtain primary transit observations and supplement them with publicly available observations to update the orbital ephemerides of the three planets. Based on the secondary eclipse timing, we set upper boundaries for e cos(ω) for HAT-P-6b, HAT-P-8b, and XO-4b and find that the values are consistent with circular orbits.
The Astrophysical Journal, 2008
We highlight the potential importance of gaseous TiO and VO opacity on the highly irradiated close-in giant planets. The atmospheres of these planets naturally fall into two classes that are somewhat analogous to the Mand L-type dwarfs. Those that are warm enough to have appreciable opacity due to TiO and VO gases we term the "pM Class" planets, and those that are cooler, such that Ti and V are predominantly in solid condensates, we term "pL Class" planets. The optical spectra of pL Class planets are dominated by neutral atomic Na and K absorption. We calculate model atmospheres for these planets, including pressure-temperature profiles, spectra, and characteristic radiative time constants. Planets that have temperature inversions (hot stratospheres) of ∼2000 K and appear "anomalously" bright in the mid infrared at secondary eclipse, as was recently found for planets HD 149026b and HD 209458b, we term the pM Class. Molecular bands of TiO, VO, H 2 O, and CO will be seen in emission, rather than absorption. This class of planets absorbs incident flux and emits thermal flux from high in their atmospheres. Consequently, they will have large day/night temperature contrasts and negligible phase shifts between orbital phase and thermal emission light curves, because radiative timescales are much shorter than possible dynamical timescales. The pL Class planets absorb incident flux deeper in the atmosphere where atmospheric dynamics will more readily redistribute absorbed energy. This leads to cooler day sides, warmer night sides, and larger phase shifts in thermal emission light curves. We briefly examine the transit radii for both classes of planets. The boundary between these classes is particularly dependent on the incident flux from the parent star, and less so on the temperature of the planet's internal adiabat (which depends on mass and age), and surface gravity. Around a Sun-like primary, for solar composition, this boundary likely occurs at ∼0.04-0.05 AU, but uncertainties remain. We apply these results to pM Class transiting planets that are observable with the Spitzer Space Telescope, including HD 209458b, WASP-1b, TrES-3b, TrES-4b, HD 149026b, and others. The eccentric transiting planets HD 147506b and HD 17156b alternate between the classes during their orbits. Thermal emission in the optical from pM Class planets is significant red-ward of 400 nm, making these planets attractive targets for optical detection via Kepler, COROT, and from the ground. The difference in the observed day/night contrast between υ Andromeda b (pM Class) and HD 189733b (pL Class) is naturally explained in this scenario.
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2015
We present a comprehensive study of phase curves and secondary eclipses in the Kepler data set using all available data from 15 quarters. Our original sample consists of 489 Kepler Objects of Interest (KOI) with R p > 4R e , P < 10d, V mag < 15 from the latest data release. Here we focus on 20 confirmed planets from that sample and derive their temperatures and albedos. Our results confirm and in most cases improve parameters derived by previous studies. We present new results for Kepler 1b-8b, 12b-15b, 17b, 40b, 41b, 43b, 44b, 76b, 77b, and 412b derived in a consistent manner. Furthermore we present a lightcurve analysis of Kepler 91b and Kepler 74b. Both show extra dimmings at times other than of the expected primary and secondary eclipses. Corrected for thermal emission we find the 20 planets we analyzed separate into two groups of high (> 0.1) and low (< 0.1) albedos, with no significant correlation to any stellar or planetary parameters. However the most massive planets from our sample are all low in albedo.
Lessons from detections of the near-infrared thermal emission of hot Jupiters
Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, 2010
There have recently been a flood of ground-based detections of the near-infrared thermal emission of a number of hot Jupiters. Although these near-infrared detections have revealed a great deal about the atmospheric characteristics of individual hot Jupiters, the question is: what information does this ensemble of near-infrared detections reveal about the atmospheric dynamics and reradiation of all hot Jupiters? I explore whether there is any correlation between how brightly these planets shine in the near-infrared compared to their incident stellar flux, as was theoretically predicted to be the case. Secondly, I look for whether there is any correlation between the host star's activity and the planet's near-infrared emission, like there is in the mid-infrared, where Spitzer observations have revealed a correlation between the host star activity with the presence, or lack thereof, of a temperature inversion and a hot stratosphere.
On the Dayside Thermal Emission of Hot Jupiters
The Astrophysical Journal, 2005
We discuss atmosphere models of HD209458b in light of the recent day-side flux measurement of HD209458b's secondary eclipse by Spitzer-MIPS at 24 µm. In addition, we present a revised secondary eclipse IRTF upper limit at 2.2 µm which places a stringent constraint on the adjacent H 2 O absorption band depths. These two measurements are complementary because they are both shaped by H 2 O absorption and because the former is on the Wien tail of the planet's thermal emission spectrum and the latter is near the thermal emission peak. A wide range of models fit the observational data, confirming our basic understanding of hot Jupiter atmospheric physics. Although a range of models are viable, some models at the hot and cold end of the plausible temperature range can be ruled out. One class of previously unconsidered hot Jupiter atmospheric models that fit the data are those with C/O 1 (as Jupiter may have), which have a significant paucity of H 2 O compared to solar abundance models with C/O = 0.5. The models indicate that HD209458b is in a situation intermediate between pure in situ reradiation and very efficient redistribution of heat; one which will require a careful treatment of atmospheric circulation. We discuss how future wavelength-dependent and phase-dependent observations will further constrain the atmospheric circulation regime. In the shorter term, additional planned measurements for HD209458b, especially Spitzer IRAC photometry, should lift many of the model degeneracies. Multiwavelength IR observations constrain the atmospheric structure and circulation properties of hot Jupiters and thus open a new chapter in quantitative extrasolar planetology.
The thermal emission of the exoplanets WASP1b and WASP2b
2010
We present a comparative study of the thermal emission of the transiting exoplanets WASP-1b and WASP-2b using the Spitzer Space Telescope. The two planets have very similar masses but suffer different levels of irradiation and are predicted to fall either side of a sharp transition between planets with and without hot stratospheres. WASP-1b is one of the most highly irradiated planets studied to date. We measure planet/star contrast ratios in all four of the IRAC bands for both planets (3.6-8.0um), and our results indicate the presence of a strong temperature inversion in the atmosphere of WASP-1b, particularly apparent at 8um, and no inversion in WASP-2b. In both cases the measured eclipse depths favor models in which incident energy is not redistributed efficiently from the day side to the night side of the planet. We fit the Spitzer light curves simultaneously with the best available radial velocity curves and transit photometry in order to provide updated measurements of system parameters. We do not find significant eccentricity in the orbit of either planet, suggesting that the inflated radius of WASP-1b is unlikely to be the result of tidal heating. Finally, by plotting ratios of secondary eclipse depths at 8um and 4.5um against irradiation for all available planets, we find evidence for a sharp transition in the emission spectra of hot Jupiters at an irradiation level of 2 x 10^9 erg/s/cm^2. We suggest this transition may be due to the presence of TiO in the upper atmospheres of the most strongly irradiated hot Jupiters.
The Broadband Infrared Emission Spectrum of the Exoplanet HD 189733b
The Astrophysical Journal, 2008
We present Spitzer Space Telescope time series photometry of the exoplanet system HD 189733 spanning two times of secondary eclipse, when the planet passes out of view behind the parent star. We estimate the relative eclipse depth in 5 distinct bands and find the planet-to-star flux ratio to be 0.256±0.014% (3.6 µm), 0.214±0.020% (4.5 µm), 0.310 ± 0.034% (5.8 µm), 0.391 ± 0.022% (8.0 µm), and 0.598 ± 0.038% (24 µm). For consistency, we re-analyze a previously published time series to deduce a contrast ratio in an additional band, 0.519 ± 0.020% (16 µm). Our data are strongly inconsistent with a Planck spectrum, and we clearly detect emission near 4 µm as predicted by published theoretical models in which this feature arises from a corresponding opacity window. Unlike recent results for the exoplanet HD 209458b, we find that the emergent spectrum from HD 189733b is best matched by models that do not include an atmospheric temperature inversion. Taken together, these two studies provide initial observational support for the idea that hot Jupiter atmospheres diverge into two classes, in which a thermal inversion layer is present for the more strongly irradiated objects.