Prenatal Development: Annotated Bibliography (original) (raw)

Risk in infancy: Origins and implications

American Psychologist, 1989

This article focuses on biological risks that can adversely influence development during infancy and later. In the first part of the article, the origins of risks and their potential consequences are discussed relative to prepregnancy, prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal periods. Epidemiological data are presented. The second part of the article addresses issues pertaining to assessment of infant development and interventions provided for infants whose development may be in jeopardy. Finally, goals for prevention are highlighted and the need for a nationally derived data base on risk and outcomes is emphasized. Infancy, the foundation period of our species, is no more and no less important than other phases of life. Still, infancy marks the beginning of our contacts with the outside world, and for this reason it has been accorded special status by some philosophers, scientists, and lay people. There are others, we among them, who prefer to think of infancy as a way-point in childhood's journey. Important, developmentally related events occur before birth, and many more will occur long after. When genetic heritage and prenatal life are favorable, the infant's roots are securely anchored and sound development should occur. If physical or psychological adversities arise later on, there is potential for resiliency given that rearing conditions are reasonably supportive. Alternatively, unfavorable genetic or prenatal factors set the stage for vulnerabilities. Sometimes an adverse condition is so profound that development is irreversibly impaired. In other instances, risk factors may disrupt processes of growth but not conelusively alter them. In this case development is less predictable and depends on both the nature of early risks and the child's ensuing life experiences. Often supportive caregiving can buffer the child and facilitate development, whereas rearing that is neglectful, uncaring, or abusive compounds earlier vulnerabilities. Exposed to multiple and continuing liabilities, a few children manage to adapt, many more marginally accommodate to educational and social demands, and still others ultimately fail and deteriorate mentally, behaviorally, and socially. Risks that compromise development are diverse and complex. They include those that are (a) biological in origin; (b) from the environment, primarily adverse rearing conditions; and (c) from a combination of the two. Our focus is on biological risk, and where appropriate, combined risks are mentioned as well. Topics discussed include the origins of risks and their effects on development, epidemiology, assessment of status in infancy, and interventions for infants whose development may be problematic.

Infant Development and Developmental Risk: A Review of the Past 10 Years

Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 1997

ObJective: To review critically the research on infant developmental risk published in the past 10 years. Method: A brief framework on development in the first 3 years is provided. This is followed by a review of pertinent studies of developmental risk, chosen to illustrate major risk conditions and the protective factors known to affect infant development. Illustrative risk conditions include prematurity and serious medical illness and infant temperament, infant--earegiver attachment, parental psychopathology, marital quality and interactions, poverty and social class, adolescent parenthood, and family violence . Results: Risk and protective factors interact complexly . There are few examples of specific or linear links between risk conditions and outcomes during or beyond the first 3 years of life. Infant development is best appreciated within the context of caregiving relationships. which mediate the effects of both intrinsic and extrinsic risk conditions . Conclusions: Complex and evolving interrelationships among risk factors are beginning to be elucidated. Linear models of cause and effect are of little use in understanding the development of psychopathology. Refining our markers of risk and demonstrating effective preventive interventions are the next important challenges. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry. 1997. 36(2): 165-178. Key Words: infancy, risk and protective factors, developmental psychopathology, infant-parent relationships.

Impact of premature birth on the development of the infant in the family

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1987

This article describes effects of the birth of a premature infant on the family system and focuses on how problems associated with premature birth such as infant illness, hospitalization, and immaturity can place the family at risk. New data are presented describing differences in the behavior of preterm and full-term infants and in the feelings of mothers toward their infants at 12 months. Mothers of preterm infants reported feeling overprotective toward them, were less willing to leave them with sitters, and believed that their birth had an initially negative effect on the family. Preterm infants showed less exploratory play and stayed closer to their mothers during free play. The fact that these differences are not reflected in patterns of attachment, a key measure of the mother-infant relationship, is discussed. The birth of an infant can precipitate major stress within the family system. For example, it may be necessary to develop new patterns of relating among spouses, siblings, and other family members. The infant's own temperament, patterns, and rhythms will affect how the family adjusts; the quality of that adjustment will, in turn, affect the infant's development. The birth of a premature infant can intensify the stress that normally occurs and can make the process of adaptation and accommodation more difficult (Easterbrooks, in press; Harmon, Glicken,& Good, 1982). This article describes the consequences of premature birth for infants and families. We review data that have examined the social and emotional effects of preterm birth in the first 2 years of life, particularly for the infant-mother relationship. In addition, we discuss methodological issues in the assessment of preterm infants and their caregivers and present new data on the effects of preterm birth on the mother-infant relationship. Concept of Prematurity in Developmental Research In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the outcome of infants born prematurely. Much of this research has

Prenatal Foundations: Fetal Programming of Health and Development

Zero to Three, 2014

The fetal programming and developmental origins of disease models suggest that experiences that occur before birth can have consequences for physical and mental health that persist across the lifespan. Development is more rapid during the prenatal period as compared to any other stage of life. This introductory article considers evidence that fetal exposure to stress and stress hormones influences regulation of stress and emotion, cognitive functioning, and brain development during infancy and childhood. The authors consider implications for intervention and future research directions.

Childbirth complications affect young infants’ behavior

European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2007

Gestation finalizes with delivery, a process that by itself can be an important stressor for the fetus [6]. Childbirth factors as mode of delivery, length of labor, and signs of fetal stress have been found to influence the newborn's condition after birth. For example, neonates born by elective caesarean section have higher rates of respiratory morbidity, possibly because labor and delivery produce a surge of catecholamines in the fetus, which is in turn important for postnatal lung adaptation [26]. Also, meconium staining of the amniotic fluid is significantly associated with generally poorer neonatal outcome [27]. Moreover, childbirth factors have been related to neonatal development as well as development far beyond the neonatal period [10, 21].

A Model of Neurodevelopmental Risk and Protection for Preterm Infants

Advances in Neonatal Care, 2013

The purpose of this article is to introduce a model of neurodevelopmental risk and protection that may explain some of the relationships among biobehavioral risks, environmental risks, and caregiving behaviors that potentially contribute to neurobehavioral and cognitive outcomes. Infants born before 30 weeks of gestation have the poorest developmental prognosis of all infants. These infants have lengthy hospitalization periods in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU,) an environment that is not always supportive of brain development and long-term developmental needs. The model supports the premise that interventions focused on neuroprotection during the neonatal period have the potential to positively affect long-term developmental outcomes for vulnerable very preterm infants. Finding ways to better understand the complex relationships among NICU-based interventions and long-term outcomes are important to guiding caregiving practices in the NICU.