Emotional reactions to learning in cattle (original) (raw)
Related papers
Behavioural Processes, 2002
One of the major topics of applied ethology is the welfare of animals reared by humans. Welfare can be defined as a state of harmony between an individual and its environment. Any marked deviation from this state, if perceived by the individual, results in a welfare deficit due to negative emotional experiences. In humans, verbal language helps to assess emotional experiences. In animals, only behavioural and physiological measurements help to detect emotions. However, how to interpret these responses in terms of emotional experiences remains an open question. The information on the cognitive abilities of farm animals, which are available but scattered, could help the understanding of their emotions. We propose a behavioural approach based on cognitive psychology: emotions can be investigated in farm animals in terms of the individual's appraisal of the situation. This evaluative process depends on: (a) the intrinsic characteristics of the eliciting event (suddenness, novelty, pleasantness); (b) the degree of conflict of that event with the individual's needs or expectations; and (c) the individual's coping possibilities offered by the environment. The result of such an evaluation determines the negative versus positive emotions. We propose an analysis of the emotional repertoire of farm animals in terms of the relationship between the evaluative process of the event on the one hand and the behavioural and physiological responses on the other hand. #
The Interpretation of Cows' Psychology
Animal Behavior and Cognition, 2017
We admire Marino and Allen's (2017) attempt to "take on" cow psychology. The literature surveyed is messy and confusing, and deriving an understanding of cow psychology from it is hard work. The authors' plea for more research on cow psychology is well-placed, and their marshaling the relevant available evidence is commendable. It is quite evident that, like most mammals, cows are intelligent, emotional, sentient beings who exhibit evidence of knowledge, memory, and skill in tasks that many mammals also test well on. It is less evident that cows are as complicated psychologically as the authors believe. We discuss below some areas in which their interpretations of cow psychology seem problematic. According to Marino and Allen (2017, p. 8), "Play is related to curiosity and innovation and, therefore, forms the basis for complex object-related and social abilities," but how the kinds of play that cattle enact are related to these skills, attitudes, and global abilities is unclear. The authors posit (p. 9) that "an increase in play expresses the rewarding nature of good welfare," arguing that "Pair housing and enhanced feeding work synergistically to enhance play, and thus welfare," citing research comparing play of isolation-and pair-reared calves (Jensen, Duve, & Weary, 2015). Marino and Allen state that pairreared calves engaged in locomotor play longer, using this as evidence of the welfare benefits derived from pair housing. However, Jensen et al. (2015) observed that it was isolation-reared calves who exhibited longer locomotor play than pair-reared calves, and there was no difference in the duration of play overall for the two groups. It would not be reasonable to conclude, given the inherent sociability of cows, that isolation-reared calves have better welfare than pair-reared calves. Consequently, play duration does not seem a useful measure of positive welfare. Marino and Allen (2017) stated (p. 8) that "Cows engage in all forms of play found in mammals," but cows apparently do not engage in pretend play, as some mammals do (Mitchell, 2002). Evidence of pretense in cows would be suggestive of the same mental representational abilities present in understanding object permanence, both of which have theoretical ties to self-awareness (Piaget, 1947/1972). The responses of cattle in the Krushinskii task described by Marino and Allen appear to satisfy a form of visible displacement, rather than the more cognitively complex invisible displacement suggested, in the object permanence task. Marino and Allen (2017) direct us to the "complexity of factors that moderate emotional states in cows," but a complexity of factors influencing emotions need not indicate emotional complexity. The authors present four forms of "complex emotions": cattle enjoy being the cause of success on a task
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 1990
The first experiment investigated the learning abilities of different types of heifers and the capacity of familiar conspecifics to reduce their behavioural reactivity. Two groups of 12-15 monthold Friesian and Aubrac (French breed) heifers were used. Ten animals of each breed were tested individually: 5 alone and 5 in the presence of the two other group mates. Heifers were trained daily, using an operant conditioning method, to press a panel (conditioned response) in order to obtain food. The number of trials necessary for the animals to learn the response was recorded. Their reactions towards the novel conditioning apparatus and pairing the food with a stressful stimulus were measured in the first phases of the conditioning procedure. In the absence of conspecifics, Aubrac heifers learnt more slowly than the other animals. At the onset of the conditioning test, they exhibited more signs of disturbance towards fear-eliciting stimulation. The differences in reaction between the two breeds were explained in terms of different levels of social attachment and novelty of the surroundings. A second experiment was conducted using the same conditioning procedure to repeat the first experiment and to assess the influence of affinity relationships with spectator conspecifics on the reactivity of heifers. Twenty-four 2-year-old Salers (French breed} heifers were tested: 8 alone and 16 others in the presence of two companions for which they had either a strong (8 animals) or a weak affinity (8 animals). The reactivity of each animal was assessed as previously in a novel environment and in an approach-avoidance conflict situation. As in the first experiment, the presence of peers improved the behavioural responsiveness towards the fear-inducing situations. Only one measure differentiated the subjects according to the social quality of the "spectator" companions: the time heifers spent feeding near the spectators was positively correlated with their affinity. The importance of the "spectator" companions' reactivity and the communication of stress is discussed.
How assessing relationships between emotions and cognition can improve farm animal welfare
Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'OIE, 2014
The assessment of farm animal welfare requires a good understanding of the animals' affective experiences, including their emotions. Emotions are transient reactions to short-term triggering events and can accumulate to cause longerlasting affective states, which represent good or bad welfare. Cognition refers to the mechanisms by which animals acquire, process, store and act on information from the environment. The objective of this paper is to highlight the two-way relationships between emotions and cognition that were originally identified in human psychology, and to describe in what ways these can be used to better access affective experiences in farm animals. The first section describes a recent experimental approach based on the cognitive processes that the animal uses to evaluate its environment. This approach offers an integrative and functional framework to assess the animal's emotions more effectively. The second section focuses on the influence of emotions on cognitive processes and describes recently developed methodologies based on that relationship, which may enable an assessment of long-term affective states in animals. The last section discusses the relevance of behavioural strategies to improve welfare in animals by taking their cognitive skills into account. Specific cognitive processes eliciting positive emotions will be emphasised. Research into affective states of animals is progressing rapidly and the ability to scientifically access animal feelings should contribute to the development of innovative farming practices based on the animals' sentience and their cognitive skills in order to truly improve their welfare.
Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2011
Appraisal theories developed in cognitive psychology are used here to attempt to better understand emotional experiences in animals. We investigated whether lambs are able to form expectations and whether their emotional responses are affected by situations discrepant from the expectations they may have formed. Forty-five female lambs were trained to obtain a small or a large amount of food reward by performing an operant task (introducing their muzzle into a hole). Then, half the lambs were shifted to the large or the small reward (i.e. positive or negative shift respectively), while the remaining half continued to get the same amount of reward. Thereafter, the lambs previously submitted to a reward change were shifted back to their initial amount of reward (i.e. successive shifts) while the lambs previously maintained on the same amount of reward were subjected to extinction (no reward, thus a negative shift). Behavior, cortisol levels and cardiac activity were analyzed, and the treatments were compared with ANOVAs for mixed models. When the amount of reward delivered was decreased, the lambs showed more locomotor activity and performed the operant task at a higher frequency but less efficiently, and there was a decrease in the parasympathetic influence on their cardiac activity. These responses were exacerbated when the negative shift followed a positive one. Similar responses were observed under extinction, and these responses were more pronounced when animals were trained with a large amount of reward before extinction. In response to a positive shift, we noticed a decrease in the frequency of the attempted operant task; this occurred only when the positive shift followed a negative one. Variations in plasma cortisol were not consistent with changes in the amount of reward. This study shows that lambs evaluate a reward according to their previous experience with that reward. They are able to form expectations, and a discrepancy from these expectations influences emotional responses, especially in the case of a negative shift. Given the appraisal criteria used by lambs and the matching emotions, we can assume that the emotional response to a negative shift expressed by lambs could reflect the despair caused by frustration.
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 2006
Weaning in suckler calves influences performance in a learning task. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the improved performance after weaning, including relocation, is due to differences in motivation for the reward or in learning abilities. Forty Aubrac calves were used; half of them were weaned from their dams at around eight months, the other half were weaned one month later. After weaning, calves were housed in groups of four in a new setting. From the day after weaning of the last group of calves, the animals were subjected to two tests: (1) an arena test, (2) a Tmaze test where one arm led to either a social or a food reward. The T-maze test consisted of three sessions: in Session 1, trials were conducted until the animal acquired the task (i.e. did not take the unrewarded arm on three consecutive trials); in Session 2, the motivation for the reward was assessed via the walking time of the animal to reach the reward; in Session 3, the place of reward was reversed and the animals were trained until they acquired the new task. Calves weaned for one day explored more (P < 0.05) and had lower heart rates during the arena test (P < 0.05) compared to the ones weaned for one month. During the T-maze test, calves weaned for one month versus one day did not differ in their capacities to learn the initial route (Session 1) or in their motivation for either the social or food reward (Session 2). Calves weaned for one day learned significantly faster (P < 0.05) the reversed route (Session 3) than calves weaned for one month.
Emotions and cognition: a new approach to animal welfare
Animal …, 2007
Theconceptof qualityoflife in animaIsis closelyassociated with the conceptsof animalsentienceand animalwelfare.It reflectsa positive approachthat inquireswhat animaIslike or prefer doing.Theassessment of farm animal welfarerequiresa good understandingof the animaIs'affectiveexperience, inc/udingtheir emotions.However,affectiveexperiencein animaIsis difficult to measurebecauseof the absenceof verbal communication.Recentstudies in the field of cognitivepsycho/ogyhave shown that affective experiencecan be investigatedwithout usingverbal communicationby examinationof the interactionsbetweenemotionsand cognition.On the one hand, appraisaltheoriesprovidea conceptual frameworkwhichsuggests that emotionsin humansare triggeredby a cognitiveprocesswhereby the situationis evaluatedon a limitednumberof elementarycriteriasuchasfamiliarityandpredictability. We haveappliedtheseappraisal theoriesto deve/opan experimental approachfor studyingthe elementarycriteriausedby farm animaIsto evaluatetheir environment and the combinationsof thosecriteria that triggeremotions.On the other hand, an increasingbodyof research,first in humansand then in other animaIs,suggeststhat emotionsalsoinfluencecognitiveprocessesby modifyingattention,memory andjudgementin a short-or long-termmanner.Cognitiveprocesses couldthereforebe maniPulatedandmeasuredto providenewinsightsinto how not onlyemotions but alsomore persistentaffectivestatescan be assessed in animaIs.Furtherwork basedon these cognitiveapproacheswill offer new paradigmsfor improvingour understandingof animal welfare,thus contributingto 'a life of high quality' in animaIs.
Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 2004
The aim of the present study was to determine the degree of consistency of individual differences in behavioural responses of heifer calves over time and across different situations. Twenty-five Holstein Friesian heifer calves were individually subjected to the same set of four behavioural tests at 3, 16 and 29 weeks of age. The tests involved measuring the calves' responses to a stationary human, a novel object, an open field (novel environment), and to tethering restraint. Principal component analysis (PCA) of measures recorded at each age was used to identify independent dimensions underlying the calves' reactivity to these situations. The consistency of individual differences was established by ranking the behavioural scores and the scores of factors extracted by PCA and then estimating the correlations between the ranks of each individual calf at each of the test ages. At each age, PCA revealed four factors that could be labelled: "locomotion", "vocalisation", "interaction with a novel object", and "interaction with a human". Individual differences in 7 of 13 behavioural measures and in scores of all factors except "interaction with a human" were consistent between 16 and 29 weeks of age. Rank orders for scores of the factor labelled "interaction with a novel object" were significantly correlated across all three ages. Our results support the existence in calves of stable characteristics mediating reactivity to challenge. Multiple behavioural dimensions obtained with PCA suggest that
Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 2018
Emotions can be defined as an individual's affective reaction to an external and/or internal event that, in turn, generates a simultaneous cascade of behavioral, physiological, and cognitive changes. Those changes that can be perceived by conspecifics have the potential to also affect other's emotional states, a process labeled as "emotional contagion." Especially in the case of gregarious species, such as livestock, emotional contagion can have an impact on the whole group by, for instance, improving group coordination and strengthening social bonds. We noticed that the current trend of research on emotions in livestock, i.e., investigating affective states as a tool to assess and improve animal welfare, appears to be unbalanced. A majority of studies focuses on the individual rather than the social component of emotions. In this paper, we highlight current limitations in the latter line of research and suggest a stronger emphasis on the mechanisms of how emotions in livestock are transmitted and shared, which could serve as a promising tool to synergistically enhance the welfare of all individuals within a group.