"Social Loafing And Collectivism: A Comparison Of The United States and the People's Republic of China" (original) (raw)
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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1984
It is argued that the collectivism of a culture leads to different styles of reward allocation with in-group and out-group members. Two studies using Chinese and American subjects examined this issue. In the first study an out-group situation was used, in which subjects were led to believe that they worked with a partner whom they would not meet, to obtain a group reward. The collectivistic Chinese subjects were found to follow the equity norm more closely in dividing the group reward than the individualistic American subjects when pressure of social evaluation was removed. In the second study Chinese and American subjects read a scenario in which an allocator worked with either an in-group or out-group member. The allocator had either a low or high input and used either the equity or equality norm to divide a group reward. Compared with American subjects, Chinese subjects liked an allocator who divided the group reward equally with an in-group member more and regarded such an allocation as fairer. When subjects were asked to assume that they were the allocator and to hypothetically divide the reward, Chinese subjects followed the equity norm more closely than did American subjects when the recipient was an out-group member or when the subjects' input was low. However, when the subjects' input was high and the recipient was an in-group member, Chinese subjects followed the equality norm more than did American subjects. These findings are discussed in terms of the desire for maintaining group solidarity in a collectivist culture.
Individualism-Collectivism: An Empirical Study of a Conceptual Issue
Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1996
Individualism-collectivism emerges from the literature as a high-order concept, explaining cross-cultural differences over a wide range of situations, with collectivists more inclined than individualists to provide for others. The present study challenges this conceptualization. Not only the readiness to support others (input) but also the expectation to receive support (output) has to be taken into account. Subjects in Hong Kong, Turkey, Greece, The Netherlands, and the United States (New York State) completed a questionnaire asking how much support they expected to receive from and give to persons in arange of social categories. Results showed that (a) the ratio between input and output as well as (b) the patterning of input and output over social categories were similar in all samples. Ratings of emotional closeness that were also obtained could account for most variance between social categories. The findings fit an interpretation of cross-cultural differences in terms of specific patterns of interpersonal relationships.
Individualism-Collectivism and Co-operation: A Cross-Society and Cross-Level Examination
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Co-operation among workgroup members is essential to the performance and viability of workgroups. In fact, it has long been considered an indispensable factor in determining the success of organizations . Wagner (1995) defined workgroup co-operation as employees' willful contribution to the successful completion of interdependent tasks in an organization. For example, an employee may opt to work closely
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All organizations are made up of organizational structures, which are made up of individual members who require motivation, development, performance, and psychological fulfilment. Management must exercise caution in upholding collectivist values, which have their roots in classical sociological theory, which opposes citizens’ autonomous desires in relation to social needs in institutions. The application of sociological theory allowed the concepts of individualism and collectivism to be included in psychology and organizational sciences. The goal of this research is to determine the impact of collectivist values and psychological needs on job performance, with conscientiousness acting as a moderator. Participants in this study were employees of public companies in Kosovo that operate in the field of post and telecommunication. A sample of 394 workers from these companies was used to test the hypotheses. We used PROCESS macro model 4 and model 59, as well as multiple regression analy...
Psychological collectivism: A measurement validation and linkage to group member performance
Journal of Applied Psychology, 2006
The 3 studies presented here introduce a new measure of the individual-difference form of collectivism. Psychological collectivism is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct with the following 5 facets: preference for in-groups, reliance on in-groups, concern for in-groups, acceptance of in-group norms, and prioritization of in-group goals. Study 1 developed and tested the new measure in a sample of consultants. Study 2 cross-validated the measure using an alumni sample of a Southeastern university, assessing its convergent validity with other collectivism measures. Study 3 linked scores on the measure to 4 dimensions of group member performance (task performance, citizenship behavior, counterproductive behavior, and withdrawal behavior) in a computer software firm and assessed discriminant validity using the Big Five. The results of the studies support the construct validity of the measure and illustrate the potential value of collectivism as a predictor of group member performance.
Variations in collectivism and individualism by ingroup and culture: Confirmatory factor analysis
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1996
Five models of collectivism and individualism, which varied by ingroup and measurement specification, were tested with confirmatory factor analyses. The sample consisted of 493 college students from South Korea and the United States, with U.S. students divided between Asian Americans and European Americans. Results indicated that collectivism and individualism are best represented by a 4-factor model with the latent variables Kin Collectivism (KC), Kin Individualism (KI), Nonkin Collectivism (NC), and Nonkin Individualism (NI). KC and KI were strongly inversely related, but NC and NI were only moderately so. Whereas KC and NC were moderately related within each of the 3 student groups, KI and NI were moderately related only among Koreans and Asian Americans, and not among European Americans. Thus, the meanings of collectivism and individualism vary with ingroup and culture. Measurement, methodological, and conceptual implications are discussed. Research suggests that there are cultural differences in social behavior (K~itqiba~i & Berry, 1989). However, finding the best ways to represent or organize cross-cultural data is a difficult task. Collectivism and individualism have been proposed as possible underlying variables (Triandis, 1995). Various conceptions of collectivism and individualism have been the focus of extensive research in the 15 years since Hofstede (1980) identified these constructs as opposite poles of a value dimension that differentiates world cultures. Features associated with collectivism include being concerned with the ingroup's fate and giving its goals priority over one's own; maintaining harmony, interdependence, and cooperation and avoiding open conflict within the ingroup; reciprocity among ingroup members, who are related in a network of interlocking responsibilities and obligations; self-definition in terms of one's ingroups; and distinguishing sharply between ingroups and outgroups. In contrast, features associated with individualism include having greater concern with personal than ingroup fate and giving personal goals priority over ingroup goals; feeling independent and emotionally detached from one's ingroups; accepting confrontations within ingroups; and defining the self independently of one's ingroups (Ho & Chiu, 1994; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Tri
Cross-Cultural Research, 2012
This study investigated the psychometric properties of the Horizontal and Vertical Individualism and Collectivism Scale (HVIC) and the Auckland Individualism and Collectivism Scale (AICS). The sample consisted of 1,403 working individuals from Switzerland ( N = 585) and from South Africa ( N = 818). Principal component factor analyses indicated that a two-factor structure replicated well across the two countries for both scales. In addition, the HVIC four-factor structure replicated well across countries, whereas the responsibility dimension of individualism of the AICS replicated poorly. Confirmatory factor analyses provided satisfactory support to the original theoretical models for both the HVIC and the AICS. Equivalence measurement indices indicated that the cross-cultural replicability properties of both instruments are generally acceptable. However, canonical correlations and correlations between the HVIC and AICS dimensions confirm that these two instruments differ in their u...
How Can Cooperation Be Fostered? The Cultural Effects of Individualism-Collectivism
Academy of Management Review, 1998
Studies oi cooperation are abundant in the social sciences, but organizational researchers are calling for integrating the numerous conceptions oi cooperation and meeting the new challenges of cultural difierences. In this article we develop a culturally contingent model of cooperation. We difierentiate various mechanisms from cooperative behaviors and theorize about how culture afiects behavioral cooperation through mechanism selection or modification. Delineating cultural effects, we derive patterned ditferences in the instrumental and expressive motives oi individualists and collectivists and propose six culturally contrasting cooperation mechanisms. Finally, we discuss directions ior future research and consider implications for practice. We thank Michael Bond, Chris Earley, Harry Hui, and John Wagner ior their comments on earlier versions oi this article.
Interactive effects of levels of individualism-collectivism on cooperation: A meta-analysis
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2013
We examined the interactive effects of levels of individualism-collectivism (I-C) on cooperation at work by meta-analytically combining results obtained from 201 studies, representing 225 independent samples. I-C was operationalized at the individual, organizational, and societal levels of analyses. Cooperation was conceptualized at both individual and group levels of analysis. Both cooperative behavior and performance were included as outcomes. The correlation between individual-level I-C and cooperation/performance was stronger in collectivistic as opposed to individualistic societies. Similarly, the correlation between organizational-level I-C and cooperation was stronger in collectivistic societies. Results also indicated that individual-level and organizational-level I-C, but not societal-level I-C, were moderately related to study outcomes. Examination of other potential moderators indicated that neither study setting, I-C dimensionality, nor performance measurement type (objective vs subjective measures) altered these relations. However, a conceptual match between I-C and cooperation was a moderator such that effect sizes were generally larger when I-C and outcomes were both measured at the same level of analysis. Overall, our results indicate that I-C is both theoretically and empirically distinct across the various levels of analyses and that it may be a better predictor of outcomes in collectivistic as opposed to individualistic societies.
Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses
Psychological Bulletin, 2002
Are Americans more individualistic and less collectivistic than members of other groups? The authors summarize plausible psychological implications of individualism-collectivism (IND-COL), metaanalyze cross-national and within-United States IND-COL differences, and review evidence for effects of IND-COL on self-concept, well-being, cognition, and relationality. European Americans were found to be both more individualistic-valuing personal independence more-and less collectivistic-feeling duty to in-groups less-than others. However, European Americans were not more individualistic than African Americans, or Latinos, and not less collectivistic than Japanese or Koreans. Among Asians, only Chinese showed large effects, being both less individualistic and more collectivistic. Moderate IND-COL effects were found on self-concept and relationality, and large effects were found on attribution and cognitive style.