Shedding light on the problem of deer overgrazing in Carolinian forests (original) (raw)
Long-term Changes in Plant Communities Influenced by Key Deer Herbivory
Natural Areas Journal, 2006
The aim of the present study was to estimate changes in plant species composition in several forest communities caused by changes in endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) densities in the National Key Deer Refuge in the lower Florida Keys. Baseline vegetation quadrats from a 1990 study were resampled in 2002 (the present study) in buttonwood transition, hardwood hammock, and mangrove wetland communities (all deer habitat) on 12 islands with low, medium, and high Key deer densities. On islands with high Key deer densities (>17 deer km-2), the relative densities of preferred plant species <1.2 m tall significantly decreased over time in each deer habitat, and nonpreferred species <1.2 m tall significantly increased in hammock and mangrove habitats. No significant changes were observed in densities of plant species <1.2 m tall on islands with low and medium Key deer densities (<8 deer km-2). Relative densities of preferred plant species >1.2 m tall (midstory/canopy) also significantly decreased in hammock on islands with high deer density, suggesting that heavy browsing is deterring plant growth/recruitment, thus already affecting regeneration of certain plant species into the midstory/canopy tiers. Plant species richness did not vary significantly between 1990 and 2002 for islands with high deer densities, but tended to increase slightly on islands with low deer density in buttonwood and hammock communities. Evidence from this study suggests that high densities of Key deer influence plant species composition on certain islands. We suggest that management plans for Key deer should incorporate both species protection components and population control techniques dependent on deer density-island associations.
Comparative Effects on Plants of Caribou/Reindeer, Moose and White-tailed Deer Herbivory
ARCTIC, 2001
We reviewed the literature reporting negative or positive effects on vegetation of herbivory by caribou/reindeer, moose, and white-tailed deer in light of the hypothesis of exploitation ecosystems (EEH), which predicts that most of the negative impacts will occur in areas where wolves were extirpated. We were able to list 197 plant taxa negatively affected by the three cervid species, as opposed to 24 that benefited from their herbivory. The plant taxa negatively affected by caribou/reindeer (19), moose (37), and white-tailed deer (141) comprised 5%, 9%, and 11% of vascular plants present in their respective ranges. Each cervid affected mostly species eaten during the growing season: lichens and woody species for caribou/reindeer, woody species and aquatics for moose, and herbs and woody species for white-tailed deer. White-tailed deer were the only deer reported to feed on threatened or endangered plants. Studies related to damage caused by caribou/reindeer were scarce and often concerned lichens. Most reports for moose and white-tailed deer came from areas where wolves were absent or rare. Among the three cervids, whitetailed deer might damage the most vegetation because of its smaller size and preference for herbs. RÉSUMÉ. À la lumière de l'hypothèse de l'exploitation des écosystèmes (EEH), nous avons examiné les publications qui mentionnent les effets négatifs ou positifs, sur la végétation, du broutement du caribou/renne, de l'orignal et du cerf de Virginie. Cette hypothèse prédit que les impacts négatifs se concentrent dans des endroits où le loup a été éliminé. Nous avons pu énumérer 197 taxons végétaux affectés négativement par les trois cervidés, contre 24 qui profitaient du broutement. Le nombre de taxons végétaux affectés négativement par le broutement du caribou/renne (19), de l'orignal (37) et du cerf de Virginie (141) représentait respectivement 5, 9 et 11 p. cent des plantes vasculaires situées dans les aires de répartition spécifiques des animaux. Chaque cervidé affectait surtout les espèces consommées durant la saison de croissance végétale: lichens et plantes ligneuses pour le caribou/renne, plantes ligneuses et aquatiques pour l'orignal, et plantes herbacées et ligneuses pour le cerf de Virginie. Selon les rapports, ce dernier était le seul cerf qui broutait des plantes menacées ou en voie de disparition. Les études rapportant des dommages causés par le caribou/renne étaient rares et traitaient souvent des lichens. La plupart des rapports sur l'orignal et le cerf de Virginie couvraient des zones où le loup était rare ou absent. Des trois cervidés, celui qui causerait le plus de dommages à la végétation est le cerf de Virginie, en raison de sa taille plus petite et de sa préférence pour les plantes herbacées.
Biological Conservation, 2005
The introduction of Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis Merriam) to Haida Gwaii (Queen Charlotte Islands, BC, Canada) in the late 19th century, provided an opportunity to understand the long-term eVects of deer populations on the vegetation of temperate rain forests in the absence of their natural predators wolves (Canis lupus L.), and cougars (Puma concolor L.). Using seven small islands with diVerent browsing histories (no deer, deer for <20 years, deer for >50 years), we tested the long-term eVects of high deer densities on plant cover and species richness in the understorey of forest interior and forest edge habitats. Overall vegetation cover exceeded 80% in the lower vegetation layers on islands without deer and was less than 10% on the islands with deer for more than 50 years. Although overall plant species richness was similar on islands with or without deer, plant species richness at the plot scale (314 m 2 ) was reduced by 20-50% on islands with deer for >50 years. The diVerences were most pronounced for the speciesrich edge communities and among herb and shrub species. These results suggest that in the absence of predators, deer have the potential to greatly simplify the forest ecosystem.
Effects of White-Tailed Deer on Populations of an Understory Forb in Fragmented Deciduous Forests
Conservation Biology, 1998
The effects of grazing by white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) on populations of Trillium spp. were examined in remnant, old-growth patches of the highly fragmented Big Woods forest ecosystem in southeastern Minnesota. We conducted three separate studies involving an exclosure experiment, transplant experiments, and comparisons of Trillium populations among study sites. The highest grazing intensity was observed where deer occurred at high overwinter concentrations ( ف 25-35/km 2 ); significantly lower grazing intensities occurred at low overwinter density ( ف 5-10/km 2 ). Deer focused their grazing on large, reproductive plants; at sites with high deer density, Trillium population structure was skewed toward small plants, and deer consistently caused over 50% reduction in reproduction during the growing season. Protection of individual plants from deer for two growing seasons resulted in dramatically increased flowering rates and significantly greater leaf area compared to control plants. No significant impact of current-year herbivory on reproduction in the following year was detected. Nevertheless, flowering rates at one site with high overwinter deer densities for at least the past 5 years suggest that the cumulative effects of grazing over several years can reduce reproduction in subsequent years. Transplant experiments with Trillium grandiflorum also showed that deer had significant effects on growth and reproduction where deer occur at high density. Our results suggest that changes in landscape structure and local deer abundance have altered plant-deer relationships such that grazing can lead to the local extirpation of sensitive forbs such as Trillium spp. As a result, active, long-term management of deer at low densities appears necessary for the conservation and restoration of fragmented forest communities in eastern North America.
A Natural Experiment on the Impact of Overabundant Deer on Forest Invertebrates
Conservation Biology, 2005
In large parts of North America and Europe, deer overabundance threatens forest plant diversity. Few researchers have examined its effects on invertebrate assemblages. In a natural experiment on Haida Gwaii (British Columbia, Canada), where Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis) were introduced, we compared islands with no deer, with deer for fewer than 20 years, and with deer for more than 50 years. We sampled invertebrates in three habitat categories: forest edge vegetation below the browse line, forest interior vegetation below the browse line, and forest interior litter. In forest edge vegetation, invertebrate abundance and species density decreased with increasing length of browsing history. In forest interior vegetation, decrease was significant only on islands with more than 50 years of browsing. Insect abundance in the vegetation decreased eightfold and species density sixfold on islands browsed for more than 50 years compared with islands without deer. Primary consumers were most affected. Invertebrates from the litter showed little or no variation related to browsing history. We attributed the difference between vegetation-dwelling and litter-dwelling invertebrates to differences in the effect of browsing on their habitat. In the layer below the browse line deer progressively removed the habitat. The extent of litter habitat was not affected, but its quality changed. We recommend more attention be given to the effect of overabundant ungulates on forest invertebrate conservation with a focus on edge and understory vegetation in addition to litter habitat.
Direct and indirect effects of white-tailed deer in forest ecosystems
Forest Ecology and Management, 2003
Ungulates can profoundly alter the structure and composition of forest communities via both direct and indirect mechanisms. Individual plant species often respond in a unique way to the direct effect of herbivory as a function of their sensitivity to browse damage, ungulate food preferences, and the density of ungulates present. Sustained browsing pressure can limit the regeneration of favored and susceptible woody plants and eliminate populations of favored or susceptible herbaceous plants. These losses, in turn, give rise to indirect effects via trophic cascades or physical habitat modification. These indirect effects affect many other plant and animal populations. In the mixed conifer-hardwood forests around the Great Lakes in North America, widespread habitat modification and the extirpation of native predators and other ungulates have acted to boost populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to historically high densities. Such densities have curtailed regeneration of several important conifers (e.g. Tsuga canadensis and Thuja occidentalis) as evidenced by demographic analysis. Deer also appear to limit regeneration of Quercus and Betula in many areas. Impacts on understory herbs are harder to assess, but baseline data from 50 years ago indicate that these communities are changing in a pattern that implicates deer: grasses, sedges, and some ferns are increasing while overall herb diversity is declining. Thus, deer are playing a keystone role in these communities. We are currently assessing an additional set of questions, including: How best can we measure and represent ungulate impacts? At which densities do deer threaten forest diversity? How do impacts depend on initial plant and ungulate densities? Which species emerge as 'winners' or 'losers' in heavily-browsed landscapes? What characteristics or traits make a species susceptible to ungulate herbivory? How do ungulates affect patterns of diversity and relative abundance in ecological communities? What are the pathways by which ungulates exert indirect effects on species? and How significant are indirect effects? #
Forest Ecology and Management, 2009
Overabundant white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are a significant management problem in North America that exert unprecedented herbivory pressure on native understory forest communities. Conserving understory plant populations requires quantifying a sustainable level of deer herbivory. To date, most population projection models consider only deer presence and absence. To estimate population growth rate along a gradient of herbivory, we focused on Trillium grandiflorum because it is a common understory species and a bellwether of deer effects and forest decline. We used matrix population models, and employed both prospective and retrospective analyses using a regression life table response experiment (LTRE).
Deer-mediated expansion of a rare plant species
Plant Ecology, 2011
Numerous plant colonizations have been putatively attributed to deer, based on plant species traits, fur brushing or dung analyses. But, in woodlands, direct links between the expansion of zoochorous plant species and ungulate presence have seldom been reported. Based on coupled floristic and browsing surveys, repeated in time, we analysed the causes of the spatio-temporal progression of the epizoochorous species Cynoglossum germanicum over 30 years in a network covering an 11000 ha forested area in north-eastern France. In this area, deer populations reached a peak in the 1970s, then were reduced in order to meet forest management requirements. Although initially rare and protected locally, C. germanicum has displayed an unexpected fast colonization rate during the last few decades but only in the northern part of the forest, which previously had the highest animal populations. Absent in the initial 1976 survey, C. germanicum occurred in 8% of the plots in 1981, then 46% in 2006. Logistic regression models revealed that the probability of occurrence of C. germanicum in 2006 increased not only with light indicator values, in accordance with its ecological requirements, but also with past deer browsing pressure. This result provides direct evidence of long-lasting impacts of deer populations on plant species distribution. Combining two complementary traits, animal transport and herbivory avoidance, C. germanicum benefited from epizoochorous dispersal and, once established, was protected from deer browsing by the presence of toxic proteins in its tissues. Due to the triggering role of ungulates, this species switched from the status of rare to that of colonizer within only a few decades.