Behavioral self-regulation and executive function both predict visuomotor skills and early academic achievement (original) (raw)
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Frontiers in Psychology, 2021
Despite a tendency to study executive function (EF) and self-regulation (SR) separately, parallel lines of research suggest considerable overlap between the two abilities. Specifically, both show similar developmental trajectories (i.e., develop rapidly in the early years), predict a broad range of overlapping outcomes across the lifespan (e.g., academic success, mental and physical health, and social competence), and have overlapping neural substrates (e.g., prefrontal cortex). While theoretical frameworks diverge in how they reconcile EF and SR – ranging from treating the two as functionally synonymous, to viewing them as related yet distinct abilities – there is no consensus and limited empirical evidence on the nature of their relationship and how this extends developmentally. The current study examined bi-directional longitudinal associations between early EF and SR, and their longitudinal associations with subsequent early academic skills, in a sample of 199 3- to 5-year-old p...
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 2010
Academic and social success in school has been linked to children's self-regulation. This study investigated the assessment of the executive function (EF) component of self-regulation using a lowcost, easily administered measure to determine whether scores obtained from the behavioral task would agree with those obtained using a laboratory-based neuropsychological measure of EF skills. The sample included 74 children (37 females; M = 86.2 months) who participated in two assessments of working memory and inhibitory control: Knock-Tap (NEPSY: Korkman, Kirk, and Kemp, 1998), and participation in event-related potential (ERP) testing that included the Directional Stroop Test (Davidson, Cruess, Diamond, O'Craven, & Savoy, 1999). Three main findings emerged. First, children grouped as high versus low performing on the NEPSY Knock-Tap Task were found to performed differently on the more difficult conditions of the DST (the Incongruent and Mixed Conditions), suggesting that the Knock-Tap Task as a low-cost and easy to administer assessment of EF skills may be one way for teachers to identify students with poor inhibitory control skills. Second, children's performance on the DST was strongly related to their ERP responses, adding to evidence that differences in behavioral performance on the DST as a measure of EF skills reflect corresponding differences in brain processing. Finally, differences in brain processing on the DST task also were found when the children were grouped based on Knock-Tap performance. Simple screening procedures can enable teachers to identify children whose distractibility, inattentiveness, or poor attention spans may interfere with classroom learning.
Relations between Measures of Executive Functions and Self-regulation in Preschoolers
Diskurs Kindheits- und Jugendforschung
Performance on different measures of executive functions (EF) and self-regulation (SR) does not always correspond to the behaviour children show in real-life situations. The present study assesses the relationships between performances on different EF and SR measures and teacher ratings of children's selfcontrol and thoughtfulness. In total, 217 children between 34 and 72 months (54% boys) were assessed. Four tests measuring cognitive EF (Digit Span backward, Block Recall, Day-Night Stroop, Hearts & Flowers) and two tests measuring behavioural EF (Tower) and SR (Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders [HTKS]) were administered. Additionally, teachers rated the dimension 'self-control and thoughtfulness' of the German observation scale 'Social-emotional well-being and resilience of children in early childhood settings' (PERiK). It was found that all measures differentiated with regard to age in the range of three to six years. Correlations between cognitive EF measures with the HTKS were almost twice as high as correlations with the Tower. This indicates that the HTKS taps similar processes as the cognitive EF measures. Teacher ratings did not show higher correlations with behavioural EF and SR than with cognitive EF measures. Also, behavioural EF and SR measures did not predict scores obtained on the teacher rating better than cognitive EF measure. This article discusses to what extent distinctions among measures of EF and SR are possible and useful.
Predictors of early growth in academic achievement: the head-toes-knees-shoulders task
Frontiers in Psychology, 2014
Children's behavioral self-regulation and executive function (EF; including attentional or cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control) are strong predictors of academic achievement. The present study examined the psychometric properties of a measure of behavioral self-regulation called the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS) by assessing construct validity, including relations to EF measures, and predictive validity to academic achievement growth between prekindergarten and kindergarten. In the fall and spring of prekindergarten and kindergarten, 208 children (51% enrolled in Head Start) were assessed on the HTKS, measures of cognitive flexibility, working memory (WM), and inhibitory control, and measures of emergent literacy, mathematics, and vocabulary. For construct validity, the HTKS was significantly related to cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control in prekindergarten and kindergarten. For predictive validity in prekindergarten, a random effects model indicated that the HTKS significantly predicted growth in mathematics, whereas a cognitive flexibility task significantly predicted growth in mathematics and vocabulary. In kindergarten, the HTKS was the only measure to significantly predict growth in all academic outcomes. An alternative conservative analytical approach, a fixed effects analysis (FEA) model, also indicated that growth in both the HTKS and measures of EF significantly predicted growth in mathematics over four time points between prekindergarten and kindergarten. Results demonstrate that the HTKS involves cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control, and is substantively implicated in early achievement, with the strongest relations found for growth in achievement during kindergarten and associations with emergent mathematics.
Fine Motor Skills and Executive Function Both Contribute to Kindergarten Achievement
Child Development, 2012
This study examined the contribution of executive function (EF) and multiple aspects of fine motor skills to achievement on 6 standardized assessments in a sample of middle-socioeconomic status kindergarteners. Three-and 4-year-olds' (n = 213) fine and gross motor skills were assessed in a home visit before kindergarten, EF was measured at fall of kindergarten, and Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Academic Achievement were administered at fall and spring. Correlations indicated that EF and fine motor skills appeared distinct. Further, controlling for background variables, higher levels of both EF and fine motor skills, specifically design copy, predicted higher achievement on multiple subtests at kindergarten entry, as well as improvement from fall to spring. Implications for research on school readiness are discussed. Links Between Fine Motor Skills and Achievement Scant research has examined the association between fine motor skills and achievement in We gratefully thank the children and their families, teachers, and research staff who made this study possible.
Data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care (N = 1273) were analyzed to assess the longitudinal relations among executive function (EF) components in early childhood (54 months) and adolescence (15 years) and their prediction of academic achievement. We found that after controlling for early achievement, demographic and home environment variables, only working memory at 54 months significantly predicted working memory at 15 years and that working memory was the only significant EF predictor of achievement at age 15. In contrast, all early achievement measures were significant predictors of later achievement. Further, no demographic or home environment variables at 54 months significantly predicted EF at 15, and only maternal education significantly explained variance in adolescent math and literacy achievement. These findings demonstrate the predictability of working memory and highlight its importance for academic outcomes across development. However, the lack of associations of ...
Psychological Bulletin, 2021
The primary goal of this study was to examine developmental patterns among the relations between components of EF (working memory [WM], inhibitory control, shifting), and academic outcomes (reading, mathematics, language) in elementary-school-age children. These relations were examined within the context of the development of EF and of academic skills utilizing an extension of the unity and diversity, intrinsic cognitive load, and dual process theories. Using meta-analytic methods, we summarized results from 305 studies with 292 independent samples, representing 64,167 elementary-school-age children (42-191 months old [M=101 months, SD=24.49 months]). Results indicated that accounting for general EF (by including the correlations among EF tasks in meta-analytic path models and accounting for effects between all three EF components and academic outcomes simultaneously) produced weaker relations between EF and academic skills than the bivariate relations which have been reported in prior meta-analytic reviews. However, although reduced, all relations between EF and academic outcomes remained significant throughout elementary school. Whereas WM was consistently moderately associated with reading, math, and oral language across development, the developmental trends for the relations between inhibitory control and shifting with academic outcomes varied based upon the academic skill examined. On the academic side, whereas the relations between reading and language skills with EF components varied throughout elementary school, few developmental changes were found in the relations between EF components and math skills across elementary school. Future directions and implications of findings for the conceptualization of the impact of EF on academics are discussed within the context of relevant theoretical models.
Society For Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2012
Body Background / Context: Children growing up in poverty are particularly likely to show delays in school readiness skills, creating a substantial achievement gap between them and their middle-income peers in kindergarten that sustains and widens over time (Campbell & von Stauffenberg, 2008; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2003). In part, this gap reflects delays in the acquisition of academic knowledge (e.g., emergent literacy and math skills); in part, it reflects delays in the acquisition of attention control and adaptive learning behaviors that support classroom engagement and goal-oriented learning (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Recent research suggests that the neural pathways that support attention control and adaptive learning behaviors develop rapidly between the ages of 3-6, and play a central role in supporting both academic and social-behavior readiness (Blair & Diamond, 2008). For example, during these years, children show a growing capacity to shift and control their attention, as reflected in their performance on executive function (EF) tasks that require inhibitory control and set-shifting (e.g., Peg Tapping, and Dimensional Change Card Sort tasks; Bierman et al., 2008). Teacher ratings also show corresponding improvements during the preschool years in behavioral control, including the capacity to sustain attention and complete tasks in the classroom, and the capacity to inhibit impulsive and reactive behaviors (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1992). Theorists have speculated that individual differences in the adaptive learning behaviors that affect school readiness are a function of two processes. First, individual differences arise from variations in temperamental activity level and impulsivity, which affect the child's reactivity to stimulation and are sometimes described as "bottom up" processes (Kochanska, Murray, Jacques, Koenig, & Vendegeest, 1996; Rothbart, 2004). Conversely, EF skills and the capacity to selectively focus and sustain attention behavior are typically considered to be "top down" processes, which develop over time and allow children to modulate their impulsivity and reactivity. Although EF skills, impulsive behaviors, and attention functioning in the classroom are interrelated from a theoretical standpoint, they may each reflect some distinct aspects of children's self-regulatory skill development. Longitudinal studies that specifically assess children's EF skills, impulsive behaviors, and attention functioning in pre-kindergarten and assess individual variation and prediction to school adaptation are needed to better understand the relations between self-regulatory skill development and school adjustment. Purpose / Objective / Research Question / Focus of Study: The aim of this study was to examine co-variation in the development of self-regulatory skills evident in pre-kindergarten and evaluate the implications of that variation for school adjustment in kindergarten and first grade. Measures of self-regulatory skill development included: direct assessments of EF (e.g., Peg Tapping, DCCS), teacher ratings of attention functioning and impulsivity in the classroom, and observer ratings of attention functioning during academic assessments. The study utilized a person-centered approach (latent profile analysis) to determine whether subgroups of Head Start children showed variations in profiles of self-regulatory skills during the prekindergarten year. It also assessed whether those subgroups differed in terms of their academic and social-behavioral adjustment at kindergarten and first grade. Because these analyses were exploratory, a priori hypotheses concerning the number of groups and specific profiles were not generated. However, it was anticipated that with direct assessment of EF, teacher-rated inattention and impulsivity, and assessor-rated attention included as continuous predictors, a solution of three or more distinct profiles would result, reflecting
Executive function and learning behaviors: associations with academic skills among preschoolers
Early Child Development and Care, 2019
This study examined the associations of preschool children's executive function (EF) and learning behaviour (CLB) with their concurrent academic skills and the role of CLB as a mediator for the EF-academic skills link. One hundred seventy-nine children were assessed on EF and math and literacy skills. Parents and teachers completed a questionnaire that assessed CLB. We found that both EF and CLB were significantly associated with math and literacy skills. However, EF and CLB were not associated, and there was no support for the mediational model of EF on CLB. This finding suggests that EF and CLB may tap unique aspects of children's learning related skills and are directly and independently associated with children's concurrent math and literacy skills.
Many cognitive self-regulation (CSR) measures are related to the academic achievement of prekindergarten children and are thus of potential interest for school readiness screening and as outcome variables in intervention research aimed at improving those skills in order to facilitate learning. The objective of this study was to identify learning-related CSR measures especially suitable for such purposes by comparing the performance of promising candidates on criteria designed to assess their educational relevance for pre-K settings. A diverse set of 12 easily administered measures was selected from among those represented in research on attention, effortful control, and executive function, and applied to a large sample of pre-K children. Those measures were then compared on their ability to predict achievement and achievement gain, responsiveness to developmental change, and concurrence with teacher ratings of CSR-related classroom behavior. Four measures performed well on all those criteria: Peg Tapping, Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders, the Kansas Reflection-Impulsivity Scale for Preschoolers, and Copy Design. Two others, Dimensional Change Card Sort and Backwards Digit Span, performed well on most of the criteria. Cross-validation with a new sample of children confirmed the initial evaluation of these measures and provided estimates of test–retest reliability.