Guide to Choosing Crops Well-Suited to Limited Irrigation (original) (raw)

Effect of water stress at different development stages on vegetative and reproductive growth of corn

A field study was carried out from 1995 to 1997 in order to determine the effect of irrigation and water stress imposed at different development stages on vegetative growth, grain yield and other yield components of corn (Zea mays L.). The field trials were conducted on a silty loam Entisol soil, with Pioneer 3377 corn hybrid. A randomised complete block design with three replications was used. Four known growth stages of the plant were considered and a total of 16 (including rain fed) irrigation treatments were applied. The effect of irrigation or water stress at any stage of development on plant height, leaf area index, grain yield per hectare, as well number of ears per plant, grain yield per cob and 1000 kernels weight, were evaluated. Results of this 3-year study show that all vegetative and yield parameters were significantly affected by water shortage in the soil profile due to omitted irrigation during the sensitive tasselling and cob formation stages. Water stress occurring during vegetative and tasselling stages reduced plant height, as well as leaf area development. Short-duration water deficits during the rapid vegetative growth period caused 28–32% loss of final dry matter weight. Highest yields were observed in the fully irrigated control (VTCM) and the treatment which allowed water stress during the vegetative growth stage (TCM). Even a single irrigation omission during one of the sensitive growth stages, caused up to 40% grain yield losses during dry years such as 1996. Much greater losses of 66–93% could be expected as a result of prolonged water stress during tasselling and ear formation stages. Seasonal irrigation water amounts required for non-stressed production varied by year from 390 to 575 mm. Yield response factor (k y) values (unitless parameter) relating yield loss to water deficits) obtained for the first, second and third experimental years were determined to be 1.22, 1.36 and 0.81, respectively.

Impact of Drought Stress on Crop Production and Its Management Options

International journal of research studies in agricultural sciences, 2022

A In the development of agricultural crops, biotic and abiotic stresses result in considerable yield losses. One of the main obstacles to agricultural production and global food security is abiotic stress. Stress is a word that refers to several biotic and abiotic environmental factors that prevent crop plants from reaching their full genetic potential. Drought is one of the fundamental issues in the current climatic environment and is one of the most severe abiotic stresses in many areas of the world. Plants experience moisture stress when their evapotranspiration requirements are not met. Drought has a negative impact on plant development and other metabolic processes, making it one of the most significant abiotic stresses and factors restricting the successful production of plant products globally. Drought is caused by a lack of water as a result of erratic rainfall or inadequate irrigation, but it can also be hampered by other elements such as soil salinity, physical characteristics, and excessive air or soil temperatures. Insufficient water supply throughout a crop's life cycle, including precipitation and the capability of the soil to store moisture, limits the crop's potential to produce the highest possible genetic grain yield. The most significant stressor that has a significant impact on crop development and productivity is without a doubt drought. For better management, it is crucial to comprehend the physiological, biochemical, and ecological actions connected to these stresses. It is possible to generalize morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses to a broad range of plant responses to this stress. Due to physical damage, physiological disruptions, and biochemical alterations, inadequate water supplies and abnormal temperatures have a severe impact on crop growth and yields. Drought stress reduces the size of the leaves, stem extension, and root proliferation within the soil; it also disturbs plant water relations and reduces water-use efficiency, which in turn reduces the plant's ability to yield; as a result, breeding for drought resistance is a good approach. This approach combines conventional and molecular methods to develop a drought-tolerant variety. Breeding more drought-tolerant cultivars may be more successful when selection is based on a thorough testing strategy. Practical implications for treatments and management result from a greater understanding of how plants react to this stress. High demand for drought-tolerant types would seem to be a difficult issue for plant breeders, but difficulties are aggravated by the difficulty of crop yield on a genetic and physiological basis. Food security is seriously threatened by drought, which is the main reason for agricultural loss worldwide. Plant biotechnology is currently one of the most promising areas for creating crops that can generate large amounts of food in moisture environments.

Plant Drought Stress: Effects, Mechanisms and Management

Sustainable Agriculture, 2009

Scarcity of water is a severe environmental constraint to plant productivity. Drought-induced loss in crop yield probably exceeds losses from all other causes, since both the severity and duration of the stress are critical. Here, we have reviewed the effects of drought stress on the growth, phenology, water and nutrient relations, photosynthesis, assimilate partitioning, and respiration in plants. This article also describes the mechanism of drought resistance in plants on a morphological, physiological and molecular basis. Various management strategies have been proposed to cope with drought stress. Drought stress reduces leaf size, stem extension and root proliferation, disturbs plant water relations and reduces water-use efficiency. Plants display a variety of physiological and biochemical responses at cellular and whole-organism levels towards prevailing drought stress, thus making it a complex phenomenon. CO 2 assimilation by leaves is reduced mainly by stomatal closure, membrane damage and disturbed activity of various enzymes, especially those of CO 2 fixation and adenosine triphosphate synthesis. Enhanced metabolite flux through the photorespiratory pathway increases the oxidative load on the tissues as both processes generate reactive oxygen species. Injury caused by reactive oxygen species to biological macromolecules under drought stress is among the major deterrents to growth. Plants display a range of mechanisms to withstand drought stress. The major mechanisms include curtailed water loss by increased diffusive resistance, enhanced water uptake with prolific and deep root systems and its efficient use, and smaller and succulent leaves to reduce the transpirational loss. Among the nutrients, potassium ions help in osmotic adjustment; silicon increases root endodermal silicification and improves the cell water balance. Low-molecular-weight osmolytes, including glycinebetaine, proline and other amino acids, organic acids, and polyols, are crucial to sustain cellular functions under drought. Plant growth substances such as salicylic acid, auxins, gibberrellins, cytokinin and abscisic acid modulate the plant responses towards drought. Polyamines, citrulline and several enzymes act as antioxidants and reduce the adverse effects of water deficit. At molecular levels several drought-responsive genes and transcription factors have been identified, such as the dehydration-responsive element-binding gene, aquaporin, late embryogenesis abundant proteins and dehydrins. Plant drought tolerance can be managed by adopting strategies such as mass screening and breeding, marker-assisted selection and exogenous application of hormones and osmoprotectants to seed or growing plants, as well as engineering for drought resistance. drought response / stomatal oscillation / osmoprotectants / hormones / stress proteins / drought management / CO 2 Plant drought stress: effects, mechanisms and management 187 Table I. Economic yield reduction by drought stress in some representative field crops. Crop Growth stage Yield reduction References Barley Seed filling 49-57% Samarah (2005) Maize Grain filling 79-81% Monneveux et al. (2005) Maize Reproductive 63-87% Kamara et al. (2003) Maize Reproductive 70-47% Chapman and Edmeades (1999) Maize Vegetative 25-60% Atteya et al. (2003) Maize Reproductive 32-92% Atteya et al. (2003) Rice Reproductive (mild stress) 53-92% Lafitte et al. (2007) Rice Reproductive (severe stress) 48-94% Lafitte et al. (2007) Rice Grain filling (mild stress) 30-55% Basnayake et al. (2006) Rice Grain filling (severe stress) 60% Basnayake et al. (2006) Rice Reproductive 24-84% Venuprasad et al. (2007) Chickpea Reproductive 45-69% Nayyar et al. (2006) Pigeonpea Reproductive 40-55% Nam et al. (2001) Common beans Reproductive 58-87% Martínez et al. (2007) Soybean Reproductive 46-71% Samarah et al. (2006) Cowpea Reproductive 60-11% Ogbonnaya et al. (2003) Sunflower Reproductive 60% Mazahery-Laghab et al. (2003) Canola Reproductive 30% Sinaki et al. (2007) Potato Flowering 13% Kawakami et al. (2006)

The effects of drought stress on yield, relative water

SUMMARY The experiment carried out in 2007 and 2008 in the Dryland Agriculture Research sub -Institute Sararood, Kermanshah, Iran in order to study the effects of drought stress on yield, proline content, soluble carbohydrates content, relative water content and chlorophyll content of bread wheat cultivars under field conditions. The experiments were base on split plot in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The main plots included drought stress treatments at 4 levels: I1-drought stress at the start of stem elongation stage (31 Zadoks); I2 -drought stress at the start of boot stage (43 Zadoks); I3drought stress at the start of grain filling stage (70 Zadoks) and I4-full irrigation. The Subplots included cultivars treatments at 3 levels: Chamran (C1), Marvdasht(C2), and Shahriar (C3). A significant difference (p<0.01) was observed between the drought stress treatments. The results showed that with an increase in the Intensity of drought stress on wheat cultivars, there was a decrease in relative water content , total chlorophyll content and increased proline content, but was not observed on trend relating to soluble carbohydrates content. The Chamran cultivar (C1) on drought stress treatment (I1) had the lowest decrease in relative water content and total chlorophyll content than with control treatment (I4). Also this cultivar had the highest drought tolerance and yield stability.

Effects of Drought Stress on Crop Production and Productivity

International Journal of Research Studies in Agricultural Sciences

Stress is a change of the normal growth, development and productivity of crop plants and that is outside the normal range of homeostatic control. Among stresses, abiotic stress is caused due to moisture, temperature, mineral (deficiency/toxicity), salinity, soil acidity/soil P H. Drought is the primary cause of crop yield loss among abiotic factors around the world. It is a major problem in world, leading to food shortages and is a challenge for smallholder farmers to produce enough crop grain when rainfall is low and erratic. Climate change is the main cause of biotic and abiotic stresses, which have adverse effects the world's crop production and productivity. Crop production is determined by the existence of sufficient rain fall, especially in areas where crop production is totally relied on rain fall, there is always risk of crop failure or yield loss due to moisture stress. In severe cases, the stress could lead to total crop loss. This day, increasing crop yield is required to meet the needs of increasing population growth, however yield reduction is observed in areas where drought is predominantly devastated crop production. Short duration drought stress mostly reduces grain yield while prolonged drought stress leads to complete death of plant. Drought stress occurs at different stages of growth and adversely affect yield and yield related traits, which lead to reduction in yield. The effect of drought stress is mainly depending on the developmental stage of the plant, degree and duration of the stress, genotypic capacity of species and environmental interactions. Crop plants have adaptation strategies to survive under drought stress by the development of various morphological, physiological and biochemical mechanisms. However, a plant may exhibit more than one strategy to cope with drought stress. Drought resistance is the mechanism(s) causing minimum loss of yield in a drought condition. Drought escape, dehydration avoidance, reduced transpiration or physiological factors are some drought resistance mechanisms. Drought resistant genotypes maintain high photosynthesis under moisture stress condition by restricting transpiration water loss. Finally, the global food security is threatened by climate change and the most challenging in the 21 st century to supply sufficient food for the increasing world population. The use of well adapted and high-yielding varieties with resistance to drought stress is important to reach maximum yield potential as long as possible through minimizing the risk of climate change. Climate-smart agriculture is the only way to reduce the negative impact of climate variations on crop adaptation, before it might affect global crop production drastically.

Physiological Aspects of Crop Production under Limited Water Supply

It is estimated that in Africa and Asia, 85-90% of all the fresh water is used for agriculture and by 2025, agriculture is expected to increase its water requirements by 1.3 times (Shiklomanov, 1999). To meet the water requirements of the burgeoning population and for the industrial consumption, water has to be diverted leaving less water available for agriculture. When water becomes limited, naturally, the crop production gets hampered as there would be uncertainty in the availability of water at the critical stages of growth affecting the survival and yield prospects of the crops. Thus, there is a great need to explore the possibilities for saving available water for meeting the requirements of critical growth stages of the crop production. This article attempts to look at the work carried out by various researchers on the physiological aspects of crop production under limited water supply. The lack of water at critical stages of plant growth is called drought stress, and researchers are working to screen the drought tolerant germplasm having the drought tolerant traits to be used in the breeding programs.

Timing of the First Irrigation in Corn and Water Stress Conditioning

Agronomy Journal, 1993

Delaying the first irrigation is thought to encourage root growth and to condition crop plants for stress later in the growing season. We tested this common practice for corn (Zea mays L.) grown under arid conditions in Tucson, AZ, in 1989 and 1990. In field studies conducted on an Agua sandy clay loam (coarse-loamy over sandy, mixed, thermic Typic Torrifluvent), the first irrigation was applied at the 2-leaf, 4-leaf, or 6-to 8-leaf stages, followed by irrigation or water stress at anthesis. Delaying the first irrigation did not encourage root growth but actually restricted it in 1989. Seasonal water use was decreased from an average of 796 mm to 705 or 652 mm if the first irrigation was delayed from the 2-leaf to the 4-leaf or 6-to 8-leaf stages, respectively. Timing of the first irrigation did not affect yield in 1989, or in 1990 if irrigations were withheld at anthesis. However, grain yield was decreased from 830 to 693 g m-z and total plant yield was decreased from 2490 to 2185 g m-2 when the first irrigation was delayed past the 2-leaf stage in 1990 and the crop was well-watered at anthesis. Delaying the first irrigation of corn, with 148 mm (1989) and 170 mm (1990) plant available water in the top 1.5 m of soil the beginning of the season, did not appear to condition the crop for water stress later in the season in an arid environment, but may substantially decrease yield if adequate water is available for the remainder of the growing season.

Effect of Moisture Stress on Maize (Zea Mays L.) Yield and Water Productivity

International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Deficit irrigation has been widely investigated as a valuable and sustainable production strategy in arid and semi-arid regions. It is one of the ways of maximizing water use efficiency (WUE) for higher yields per unit of irrigation water applied (Kirda, 2002). Many studies have shown that there is a significant yield and yield component reduction occurs when maize produce under deficit irrigation. Maize is very sensitive to water stress [4,5]. Payero et al. (2008) reported that water stress can affect growth, development and physiological processes of maize plants, which reduce biomass yield.

Effect of moisture deficit conditions on the performance of maize (Zea mays): A review

International Journal of Chemical Studies, 2020

Maize (Zea mays L.) a high yielding C4 plant is susceptible to thrive under moisture stress conditions. This review article deals on the affect of moisture stress on the morphology and physiology of maize plant and the irrigation management practices that have shown substantial advancements. Several studies revealed negative effects of moisture stress on maize crop wherein severe impact on the cell ultrastructure with reduced relative water content have been noted. As a significance, stomatal conductance is reduced as a result of increased stomatal resistance, followed by proline accumulation with reduced transpiration and respiration thereby disrupting the source to sink relationship which adversely reduce the yield attributes and yield of maize. Maize responds well to irrigation, but, irrigation with increased water use efficiency needs to be quantified to combat the increasing water crisis. Irrigation based on climatological scheduling which takes into consideration the factors like season, climate, soil conditions and growth stages of plants shown to perform wonders in improving the productivity and profitability of cultivation. Introduction Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important cereal crop in India after rice and wheat which is also known as "Queen of Cereals" and plays pivotal role in agricultural economy as food for larger section of population, raw materials for industries and feed for animals. It is one of the leading crops grown in the world with an area of 197 million hectare with a production of 1134 million tonnes and productivity of 5.7 tonnes of grain per hectare. In India, maize is grown in an area of 9.2 million hectare, with a production of 28.7 million tonnes and the average productivity is 3.0 tonnes per hectare (FAOSTAT, 2017). In Tamil Nadu, maize is cultivated in an area of 0.31 million hectare with a production of 0.95 million tonnes and productivity of 3.0 tonnes per hectare (India STAT, 2017). Maize is grown all over the world under a wide range of climates. The current crisis in agricultural production revolves around many issues and ineffective water management is one among them. Irrigation water is becoming a critical scarce resource and expensive due to higher demand by industry and urban consumption and on another side ground water is depleting at an alarming rate (GOR, 2007) and therefore farming strategies to reduce irrigation water losses and enhance crop water productivity (WP) need special attention. Approximately, one third of the cultivated area of the world suffers from chronically inadequate supplies of water (Massacci et al., 2008) [50]. Water deficit is the major abiotic factor limiting plant growth and crop productivity around the world (Kramer, 1983) which is responsible for severe yield reduction in maize by 40% on a global scale (Daryanto et al., 2015). Deficit irrigation (DI) is an option where water availability limits conventional irrigation and reduces the risk of yield reduction due to terminal dry spell (Singh et al., 2010). Earlier, the farmers used their own experience by way of observing about the soil and plant conditions to decide the time of irrigation. Subsequently, with the knowledge gained through research on the soil-plant-water-climate interaction, scientific methods of irrigation scheduling have become possible. The climatological approach is based on the knowledge that water use by crops is primarily governed by the evaporative demand of the climate. Climatological approach aims at irrigating the crops based on IW/CPE ratio (Prihar, 1974) [67]. Drought stress is considered to be a moderate loss of water, which leads to stomatal closure and limitation of gas exchange.

Drought Stress in Horticultural Plants

Horticulturae

Drought stress is one of the main factors limiting horticultural crops, especially in environments such as the Mediterranean basin, which is often characterized by sub-optimal water availability [...]