From "Animal" Electricity to "Metallic" Electricity and the Beginning of Electrochemistry: The Didactical View (original) (raw)

2012, Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Chemistry Education and 11th European Conference on Research in Chemical Education, ICCE-ECRICE, 2012, Rome, Italy, pp. 237-240

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Abstract

From high school to University, students have always faced problems understanding the functioning of an electrochemical cell. In this article we will show that many of these encountered difficulties have been identified by scientists during the development of electrochemistry. Therefore, we will demonstrate how Volta, who rejected the idea of "animal" electricity as was illustrated by Galvani, postulated the existence of "metallic" electricity. Meanwhile, there was the emergence of a new theory, among others, initiated, by Faraday: The electrochemistry. Its development raised several controversial discussions among researchers and several conceptual difficulties will have been overcome as well.

Animal electricity and the birth of electrophysiology: the legacy of Luigi Galvani

Brain Research Bulletin, 1998

Preceded by a companion paper on Galvani's life, this article is written on the occasion of the bicentenary of the death of Luigi Galvani. From his studies on the effects of electricity on frogs, the scientist of Bologna derived the hypothesis that animal tissues are endowed with an intrinsic electricity that is involved in fundamental physiological processes such as nerve conduction and muscle contraction. Galvani's work swept away from life sciences mysterious fluids and elusive entities like "animal spirits" and led to the foundation of a new science, electrophysiology. Two centuries of research work have demonstrated how insightful was Galvani's conception of animal electricity. Nevertheless, the scholar of Bologna is still largely misrepresented in the history of science, because the importance of his researches seems to be limited to the fact that they opened the paths to the studies of the physicist Alessandro Volta, which culminated in 1800 with the invention of the electric battery. Volta strongly opposed Galvani's theories on animal electricity. The matter of the scientific controversy between Galvani and Volta is examined here in the light of two centuries of electrophysiological studies leading to the modern understanding of electrical excitability in nerve and muscle. By surveying the work of scientists such as Nobili, Matteucci, du Bois-Reymond, von Helmholtz, Bernstein, Hermann, Lucas, Adrian, Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz, the real matter of the debate raised by Galvani's discoveries is here reconsidered. In addition, a revolutionary phase of the 18th century science that opened the way for the development of modern neurosciences is reevaluated.

Luigi Galvani and the Debate on Animal Electricity

Difficulties in learning Ohm’s Law suggest a need to refocus it from the law for a part of the circuit to the law for the whole circuit. Such a revision may improve understanding of Ohm’s Law and its practical applications. This suggestion comes from an analysis of the history of the law’s discovery and its teaching. The historical materials this paper provides can also help teacher to improve students’ insights into the nature of science.

Visionary figures in the field of electrochemistry who revolutionized voltammetry

Macedonian Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, 2024

Understanding energetics and electron behavior has been pivotal in elucidating numerous fundamental phenomena, including electricity, corrosion, respiration, energy generation in biological systems, intermolecular interactions within living organisms, organic synthesis, drug development, enzyme functions, and the design of biosensors, among others. As 2024 records the centennial anniversary of the completion of the first polarograph by Nobel laureate Jaroslav Heyrovský (awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1959), it presents an opportune moment to pay tribute to several eminent electrochemists who have made significant contributions to the field of voltammetric techniques. Following our recent acknowledgment of the outstanding women who have made substantial contributions to voltammetry in a prior publication, this article aims to briefly highlight the major achievements of several distinguished male figures in the field (

Luigi Galvani's path to animal electricity

Comptes Rendus Biologies, 2006

In spite of the historical importance of the research that, in the second half of the 18th century, led Luigi Galvani (1737Galvani ( -1798 to lay down the foundation of modern electrophysiology, his scientific personality is largely misrepresented in science history and in popular imagery. He is still considered as a pioneer that by chance incurred some surprising experimental observations and was incapable of pursuing his research in a coherent way. In contrast with these views, Galvani was a high-standard scientist who succeeded, with the strength of experimental science, in demonstrating, in animals, electricity in a condition of disequilibrium between the interior and the exterior of excitable fibres. This electricity, called 'animal electricity', was deemed responsible for nerve conduction. By studying the scientific endeavours of Galvani, through his published and unpublished material, and by situating them in the historical context of the physiology of the Enlightenment, this paper attempts to trace the elusive and complex path that led Galvani to his extraordinary discovery.

Luigi Galvani and the debate on animal electricity, 1791–1800

Annals of Science, 1987

Galvani's discovery provoked an animated debate that lasted for about a decade. So far, historians have studied only the controversy between Volta and Galvani. I show that a more extensive examination of the response to Galvani's treatise reveals a number of important issues that were characteristic of contemporary physics and physiology but have not much attracted the attention of historians. In particular, the analysis shows the need to reappraise Galvani's role in establishing animal electricity.

Luigi Galvani and the foundations of electrophysiology

Resuscitation, 2009

Luigi Galvani became one of the greatest scientists of the 18th century with his research and the development of his theory on animal electricity. His work was appreciated by many scientists. Nevertheless, it gave rise to one of the most passionate scientific debates in history when Alessandro Volta postulated that Galvani had confused intrinsic animal electricity with small currents produced by metals. This debate would result in the creation of electrophysiology, electromagnetism, electrochemistry and the electrical battery. Galvani responded to each of the postulated theories of Volta giving irrefutable proof of the involvement of electricity in the contraction of muscles. However, his work was subsequently abandoned and silenced for many years but his ideas and theories were finally confirmed by the creation of new instruments and the interest of new scientists who helped position Galvani as the father of electrophysiology.

Introduction to electrochemistry

1993

Chapter 2 Theory of electrolytes 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 The structure of water 11 PANEL 2: Polywater: The water that never was 13 2.3 Electrolyte solutions 15 2.4 Interactions in an electrolyte 19 2.5 Activities of ions 19 2.6 Debye-Hiickel limiting law 22 2.7 Solid electrolytes 32 2.8 Problems 34 2.9 Answers 35 Chapter 3 The electrified interface 38 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 An electrode as giant ion 38 PANEL 3: Electric fish 39 3.3 The structure of the double layer 40 vii viii Contents 3.4 What can be measured at a double layer 41 3.5 Theories of the double layer 44 3.6 Electrochemical potentials 50 3.7 Electrokinetic effects 3.8 Problems 56 3.9 Answers 57 Chapter 4 Electrodes and electrochemical cells 59 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Definitions 61 4.3 Electrode potential 63 4.4 Writing electrochemical cells and potentials 69 4.5 Types of electrodes 70 4.6 Electrode potentials and activities 73 4.7 Concentration cells and membrane equilibria 75 PANEL 4: Prehistoric battery 4.8 Thermodynamics of cells 4.9 Some applications of equilibrium electrochemical cells 81 4.10 Problems 4.11 Answers Chapter 5 Ion transport, diffusion and hydrodynamics 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Forces and movement PANEL 5: Electrodeposited fractals 5.3 Fick's Laws of Diffusion 5.4 Conductivity of electrolytes 5.5 Theories of the conductivity of electrolytes 5.6 More about ion transport 5.7 Mobility and diffusion 5.8 Hydrodynamics 5.9 Problems 5.10 Answers 118 Chapter 6 Electrochemical kinetics 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Faraday's Laws 122 6.3 The course of an electrochemical reaction 122 6.4 The Butler-Volmer equation 124 Contents ix 6.5 Other sources of overpotential 6.6 Multistep reactions 6.7 More about electrode kinetics 6.8 Photoelectrochemistry 6.9 Problems 6.10 Answers Chapter 7 Techniques of electrochemistry 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Electrochemical cells 7.3 Electronics 7.4 Techniques 7.5 Spectroelectrochemistry 7.6 Problems 7.7 Answers Chapter 8 Mechanisms of electrochemical reactions 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Deposition of copper PANEL 8: Electrochemistry in crime 8.3 Hydrogen electrode reaction 8.4 Oxygen electrode reaction 8.5 The reduction of azobenzene 8.6 Techniques for determining mechanism 8.7 Problems 8.8 Answers Chapter 9 Electroanalytical chemistry: potentiometric methods 190 9.1 Introduction 190 9.2 Potentiometric methods of analysis 191 9.3 Conductiometric analysis 9.4 Problems 9.5 Answers 215 Chapter 10 Electroanalytical chemistry: voltammetry and coulometry 221 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Polarography PANEL 10: Electrochemistry in the dentist's chair x Contents 10.3 Voltammetry 237 10.4 Amperometric titrations 243 10.5 Coulometry and electro gravimetry 10.6 Problems 10.7 Answers Chapter 11 Electrochemical synthesis 11.1 Introduction PANEL 11: Victor Frankenstein: An early bioelectrochemist 255 11.2 Experimental methods 11.3 Mechanistic aspects 11.4 Types of electrosynthetic reaction 261 11.5 Examples of organic electrochemical synthesis 266 11.6 Examples of inorganic electrochemical synthesis 270 11.7 Problems 271 11.8 Answers Chapter 12 Industrial electrochemistry 12.1 Introduction 274 12.2 Electrochemical engineering PANEL 12: The story of electrolysis 12.3 The chi or-alkali industry 12.4 Metal winning, refining and finishing 12.5 Electrolysis of water 12.6 Electrochemical preparation of organic compounds 12.7 Problems 12.8 Answers Chapter 13 Batteries and fuel cells 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Definitions 13.3 Energetics of batteries PANEL 13: Battery research in the 1830s: J. F. Daniell (1791-1845) 13.4 Economics of batteries 13.5 Battery design 13.6 Types of battery 13.7 Fuel cells 13.8 Problems 13.9 Answers electrochemistry is not such an alien being but a subject that fits neatly into science. 1.2 History 7.2. 7 From then to now The history of electrochemistry is a remarkably short one for a subject that is steeped in archaic terms and that has a curiously dusty feel about it. Leaving aside the possibility that visiting space folk may have left flashlight batteries or the discoveries of Babylonian cells (see panel on electrochemical archaeology), electrochemistry is 200 years old (1791-1991). As with many who make the very first discovery of something, Luigi Galvani got the explanation wrong of why his frogs' legs twitched when sparks were generated from an electric machine. Luckily Volta quickly came to the rescue (see panel on electrolysis), but it was about 50 years before Michael Faraday made his famous remark about 'what use is a newborn baby?' to the reasonable request as to what one could do with this new electricity. Volta in 1800 made the first battery, which became known as a Voltaic pile, but at the time Volta wrote: 'To this apparatus, much more similar to the natural electric organ of the torpedo or the electric eel, etc., than to the Leyden flask, I would wish to give the name "Artificial Electric Organ"'. Electrochemists breathe a sigh of relief that we still are not delving into the mysteries of 'artificial electric organs'! Faraday's laws came in 1834, and in the same year Sir William Grove Cold fusion: or illusion? On 23 March 1989 an astounded world heard claims by Fleischmann and Pons that they had caused nuclei to fuse in a test-tube. Were they right? Three years later and, alas, the subject is as murky as it was then. Back in 1989 we saw an unusual phenomenon. Not cold fusion, but the dissemination of scientific results by television, newspapers and electronic bulletin boards. No peer-reviewed papers and very few hard facts led to enormous speculation. Anyone who had the remotest theory or opinion could appear on a chat show. The dream of the free lunch had almost come true. What did Fleischmann and Pons claim? They said that when hydrogen is evolved at a palladium electrode from a solution of LiOD in D20, the deuterium atoms that penetrate the lattice undergo nuclear fusion.

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From" ANIMAL" electricity to" METALLIC" electricity and the beginning of lectrochemistry: The didactical view

Debating the Nature of Voltaic Electricity

2014

The invention of Volta’s pile started a long lasting controversy on the nature of voltaic electricity, the overview of which is provided by Helge Kragh in volume 1 of Nuova Voltiana. 1 In particular, he indicates that the controversy subsided in the 1840s and rekindled in the 1880s with a new focus on the nature of contact potential. This change of subject implies that it may be possible, if not necessary, to discuss separately the earlier period, when the controversy still revolved around the original question: does the electricity produced in a voltaic circuit originate from the mutual contact of two different metals or from chemical reactions? Yet, even within this earlier period, the amount of material available and the number of relevant issues to be addressed preclude a comprehensive coverage within the space limitation of this paper. Thus, I will bring up only a few questions, illustrating them by selected examples. The focus will be on interaction between theory and experime...

Luigi Galvani and animal electricity: two centuries after the foundation of electrophysiology

Trends in Neurosciences, 1997

Luigi Galvani and his famous experiments on frogs carried out in the second half of the 18th century belong more to legend than to the history of science. Galvani not only laid the foundations of a new science, electrophysiology, but also opened the way for the invention of the electric battery, and thus for the development of the physical investigations of electricity. However, in spite of the widespread celebration of his work,Galvani's scientific endeavours have been largely misrepresented in the history of science.The scholar of Bologna has a stereotyped image as an 'occasional' scientist, who started his studies by chance, largely ignored the scientific theories of his time and wandered aimlessly in mental elaborations until the physicist of Pavia, Alessandro Volta, entered the field, correctly interpreted Galvani's results and eventually developed the electric battery. With the present understanding of electrical phenomena in excitable membranes, it is now time to reconsider the real matter raised by Galvani's discoveries and by his hypothesis of an intrinsic 'animal electricity', and to make a clearer evaluation of a revolutionary phase of scientific progress.

Alexander von Humboldt: Galvanism, Animal Electricity, and Self- Experimentation Part 2: The Electric Eel, Animal Electricity, and Later Years

Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 22/4, 2013

After extensive experimentation during the 1790s, Alexander von Humboldt remained skeptical about "animal electricity" (and metallic electricity), writing instead about an ill-defined galvanic force. With his worldview and wishing to learn more, he studied electric eels in South America just as the new century began, again using his body as a scientific instrument in many of his experiments. As had been the case in the past and for many of the same reasons, some of his findings with the electric eel (and soon after, Italian torpedoes) seemed to argue against biological electricity. But he no longer used galvanic terminology when describing his electric fish experiments. The fact that he now wrote about animal electricity rather than a different "galvanic" force owed much to Alessandro Volta, who had come forth with his "pile" (battery) for multiplying the physical and perceptible effects of otherwise weak electricity in 1800, while Humboldt was deep in South America. Humboldt probably read about and saw voltaic batteries in the United States in 1804, but the time he spent with Volta in 1805 was probably more significant in his conversion from a galvanic to an electrical framework for understanding nerve and muscle physiology. Although he did not continue his animal electricity research program after this time, Humboldt retained his worldview of a unified nature and continued to believe in intrinsic animal electricity. He also served as a patron to some of the most important figures in the new field of electrophysiology (e.g., Hermann Helmholtz and Emil du Bois-Reymond), helping to take the research that he had participated in to the next level.

Electricity and Life. Volta's Path to the Battery

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 1990

This paper offers a reconstruction of some three years of Alessandro Volta's investigation that culminated in his epoch-making discovery of the electric battery late in 1799. Among the materials used are labora tory notebooks and unpublished writings, including drafts of ...

The electric vocabulary

Physics Education, 2011

Since the 1600s, the developments in the understanding of electrical phenomena have frequently altered the models and metaphors used by physicists to describe and explain their experiments. However, to this day, certain relics of past theories still drench the vocabulary of the subject, serving as distracting fog for future students. This article attempts, through historical illumination, to shine through the mist of electrostatic terminology and offer a clearer view of the classical model of electricity. Thales (624BC-546BC) William Gilbert (1544-1603) and Sir Thomas Browne (1605-82) Nature had to wait around 2200 years before any further investigation was made into amber or lodestone. In 1600, the English physicist

From "Animal" Electricity to "Metallic" Electricity and the Beginning of Electrochemistry: The Didactical View (original) (raw)

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