Measurements of aerobic metabolism of a school of horse mackerel at different swimming speeds (original) (raw)
Related papers
Energetic advantages of burst and coast swimming of fish at high speeds. J Exp Biol
Journal of Experimental Biology
A theoretical model describes how an intermittent swimming style can be energetically advantageous over continuous swimming at high average velocities. Kinematic data are collected from high-speed cine pictures of free swimming cod and saithe at high velocities in a burst-and-coast style. These data suggest that fish make use of the advantages shown by choosing initial and final burst velocities close to predicted optimal values. The limiting role of rapid glycogen depletion in fast white anaerobic muscle fibres is discussed.
Energetic advantages of burst-and-coast swimming of fish at high speeds
The Journal of experimental biology, 1982
A theoretical model describes how an intermittent swimming style can be energetically advantageous over continuous swimming at high average velocities. Kinematic data are collected from high-speed ciné pictures of free swimming cod and saithe at high velocities in a burst-and-coast style. These data suggest that fish make use of the advantages shown by choosing initial and final burst velocities close to predicted optimal values. The limiting role of rapid glycogen depletion in fast white anaerobic muscle fibres is discussed.
Swimming performance is considered a key trait determining the ability of fish to survive. Hydrodynamic theory predicts that the energetic costs required for fishes to swim should vary with speed according to a U-shaped curve, with an expected energetic minimum at intermediate cruising speeds and increasing expenditure at low and high speeds. However, to date no complete datasets have shown an energetic minimum for swimming fish at intermediate speeds rather than low speeds. To address this knowledge gap, we used a negatively buoyant fish, the clearnose skate Raja eglanteria, and took two approaches: a classic critical swimming speed protocol and a single-speed exercise and recovery procedure. We found an anaerobic component at each velocity tested. The two approaches showed U-shaped, though significantly different, speed-metabolic relationships. These results suggest that (i) postural costs, especially at low speeds, may result in J-or U-shaped metabolism-speed curves; (ii) anaerobic metabolism is involved at all swimming speeds in the clearnose skate; and (iii) critical swimming protocols might misrepresent the true costs of locomotion across speeds, at least in negatively buoyant fish. aerobic performance | critical swimming speed | elasmobranch | EPOC | swimming metabolic rate S wimming ability has no doubt contributed to the astonishing diversity and evolutionary success of fishes (1, 2), and efficiency of locomotion is a key measure of performance that influences reproduction, competition, foraging, and survival outcomes (3, 4). In fact, daily and seasonal movements allow fish to forage, reproduce, and find refuge from predators or abiotic stressors (5, 6). It comes as no surprise, therefore, that fish lo-comotion has been a productive research area for both evolutionary biologists and physiologists (4, 7-10). All fishes are capable of varying locomotor speed to some degree, and both the hydrodynamic mechanisms and energetic consequences of the species-specific use of propulsors (i.e., fins) have been investigated theoretically and experimentally (11-13). Vertebrate locomotor theory predicts that the total energetic requirements (or metabolic rate, _ MO 2) for steady swimming should vary with velocity, with the greatest expenditure at the lowest and highest sustainable speeds and minimum expenditure at intermediate speeds (4). This hypothesis is based on the assumption that during swimming, fish face perturbing forces and must stabilize their body posture to maintain direction (4, 14). As speed decreases, controlling stability becomes more difficult (15), and thus instability costs increase below optimal cruising speeds (14). For negatively buoyant fish, such a process involves a significant energy loss, because they also need to counteract gravity by accelerating water downward to create hydrodynamic lift (7, 16). At higher swimming speeds, energy expenditure increases significantly, as body drag is a function of velocity squared (17). Consequently, there is a range of intermediate velocities at which fish are expected to swim relatively economically , and these are typically identified as cruising speeds (4). Taken together, these different hydrodynamic forces acting on fishes during locomotion should result in the hypothetical nonlinear relationship (as either a J-shaped or a U-shaped curve) between speed and _ MO 2 (Fig. 1A). However, to date, we lack experimental measurements of energetic cost over a range of speeds sufficiently broad and in sufficient detail to support this theoretical model. This is especially surprising because the energetic cost of swimming has been assessed in many species of fish across a range of speeds. Instead, virtually all studies show that _ MO 2 increases with speed, with a minimum energetic cost at the lowest velocity tested (Fig. 1A). Testing swimming fish at very low speeds can be challenging, and thus fish energetic analyses have not generally provided data at low enough speeds to demonstrate increased energetic costs. One exception to this is recent work with a batoid fish, the little skate Leucoraja erinacea, which has demonstrated a unique relationship between speed and _ MO 2 (18). In that study, skates exhibited a decreasing _ MO 2 with increasing speed up to a relatively low optimal cruising velocity, but were unable to swim steadily beyond the optimal speed. In that case, locomotor performance was limited to the descending portion of a single metabolism speed relationship (18). Batoid fishes lack an expansive caudal fin and are unable to transition from paired fin to body and caudal fin locomotion, i.e., cannot switch gait, as is the case with many other aquatic vertebrates (16-18). Instead, they must rely on modified pectoral fins fused to the head, forming a disk to propel themselves at varying speeds (17, 19). Even though this extreme body plan is well adapted for a benthic life history, batoids are also able to swim up in the water column, and some species can even undertake large-scale migrations (20). Another notable conclusion of the previous study was the detection of a significant postexercise oxygen debt-a proxy for Significance Hydrodynamic theory predicts that the energetic costs required for fishes to swim should vary with speed according to a U-shaped curve, with an expected energetic minimum at intermediate cruising speeds. Empirical studies to date do not support this view. Here we report a complete dataset on a swimming batoid fish that shows a clear energetic minimum at intermediate swimming speeds. We also demonstrate that this species uses a combination of aerobic and anaerobic metabolism to fuel steady swimming at each speed, including the slowest speeds tested. This contradicts the widespread assumption that fish use only aerobic metabolism at low speeds. Kinematic data support this nonlinear relationship by also showing a U-shaped pattern to body angle during steady swimming.
Marine Biology, 2005
Oxygen consumption and tail beat frequency were measured on saithe (Pollachius virens) and whiting (Merlangius merlangus) during steady swimming. Oxygen consumption increased exponentially with swimming speed, and the relationship was described by a power function. The extrapolated standard metabolic rates (SMR) were similar for saithe and whiting, whereas the active metabolic rate (AMR) was twice as high for saithe. The higher AMR resulted in a higher scope for activity in accordance with the higher critical swimming speed (U crit ) achieved by saithe. The optimum swimming speed (U opt ) was 1.4 BL s À1 for saithe and 1.0 BL s À1 for whiting with a corresponding cost of transport (COT) of 0.14 and 0.15 J N À1 m À1 . Tail beat frequency correlated strongly with swimming speed as well as with oxygen consumption. In contrast to swimming speed and oxygen consumption, measurement of tail beat frequency on individual free-ranging fish is relatively uncomplicated. Tail beat frequency may therefore serve as a predictor of swimming speed and oxygen consumption of saithe and whiting in the field. Communicated by M. Ku¨hl, Helsingør
Energetics of kayaking at submaximal and maximal speeds
European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 1999
The energy cost of kayaking per unit distance (C k , kJ á m A1 ) was assessed in eight middle-to high-class athletes (three males and ®ve females; 45±76 kg body mass; 1.50±1.88 m height; 15±32 years of age) at submaximal and maximal speeds. At submaximal speeds, C k was measured by dividing the steady-state oxygen consumption ( O 2 , l á s A1 ) by the speed (v, m á s A1 ), assuming an energy equivalent of 20.9 kJ á l O À1 2 . At maximal speeds, C k was calculated from the ratio of the total metabolic energy expenditure (E, kJ) to the distance (d, m). E was assumed to be the sum of three terms, as originally proposed by Wilkie :
Metabolic Responses at Various Intensities Relative to Critical Swimming Velocity
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2013
Toubekis, AG and Tokmakidis, SP. Metabolic responses at various intensities relative to critical swimming velocity. J Strength Cond Res 27(6): 1731-1741, 2013-To avoid any improper training load, the speed of endurance training needs to be regularly adjusted. Both the lactate threshold (LT) velocity and the velocity corresponding to the maximum lactate steady state (MLSS) are valid and reliable indices of swimming aerobic endurance and commonly used for evaluation and training pace adjustment. Alternatively, critical velocity (CV), defined as the velocity that can be maintained without exhaustion and assessed from swimming performance of various distances, is a valid, reliable, and practical index of swimming endurance, although the selection of the proper distances is a determinant factor. Critical velocity may be 3-6 and 8-11% faster compared with MLSS and LT, respectively. Interval swimming at CV will probably show steady-lactate concentration when the CV has been calculated by distances of 3-to 15-minute duration, and this is more evident in adult swimmers, whereas increasing or decreasing lactate concentration may appear in young and children swimmers. Therefore, appropriate corrections should be made to use CV for training pace adjustment. Findings in young and national level adult swimmers suggest that repetitions of distances of 100-400 m, and velocities corresponding to a CV range of 98-102% may be used for pacing aerobic training, training at the MLSS, and possibly training for improvement of V _ O 2 max. Calculation of CV from distances of 200-400, 50-100-200-400, or 100-800 m is an easy and practical method to assess aerobic endurance. This review intends to study the physiological responses and the feasibility of using CV for aerobic endurance evaluation and training pace adjustment, to help coaches to prescribe training sets for different age-group swimmers. Critical velocity, anaerobic distance capacity, maximal instantaneous velocity and anaerobic inertia in sprint and endurance young swimmers.
Modelling energetic costs of fish swimming
2005
The oxygen consumption rates of two cyprinid fishes, carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) and roach (Rutilus rutilus (L.)), were analysed for a wide range of body mass and swimming speed by computerized intermittent-flow respirometry. Bioenergetic models were derived, based on fish mass (M) and swimming speed (U), to predict the minimal speed and mass-specific active metabolic rate (AMR) in these fishes (AMR 5 aM b U c). Mass and speed together explained more than 90% of the variance in total swimming costs in both cases. The derived models show that carp consume far more oxygen at a specific speed and body mass, thus being less efficient in energy use during swimming than roach. It was further found that in carp (AMR 5 0.02M 0.8 U 0.95) the metabolic increment during swimming is more strongly effected by speed, whereas in roach (AMR 5 0.02M 0.93 U 0.6) it is more strongly effected by body mass. The different swimming traits of carp and roach are suitable for their respective lifestyles and ecological demands.
Speed limits on swimming of fishes and cetaceans
Journal of The Royal Society Interface, 2008
Physical limits on swimming speed of lunate tail propelled aquatic animals are proposed. A hydrodynamic analysis, applying experimental data wherever possible, is used to show that small swimmers (roughly less than a metre long) are limited by the available power, while larger swimmers at a few metres below the water surface are limited by cavitation. Depending on the caudal fin cross-section, 10-15 m s K1 is shown to be the maximum cavitation-free velocity for all swimmers at a shallow depth.
Journal of Fish Biology, 2020
Oxygen uptake, heart rate, and contraction frequencies of slow oxidative (SO) and fast glycolytic (FG) muscle, were measured simultaneously in gilthead seabream Sparus aurata submitted to stepwise increases in current speed in a swimming respirometer. Variation in oxygen uptake was closely related to variation in heart rate, over initial steps these rose in concert with an increase in contraction frequency of SO muscle. There was an asymptote in oxygen uptake and heart rate at high speeds, that reflected a transition from exclusive use of aerobic SO muscle to a combination of SO and anaerobic FG muscle, and which preceded fatigue.