Robert L. OConnell Of Arms and Men A History of War Weapons and Aggression Oxford University Press USA (original) (raw)

Abstract

sparkles

AI

Robert L. O'Connell's "Of Arms and Men: A History of War Weapons and Aggression" examines the historical evolution of weaponry and its intricate relationship with military culture. Through a blend of military history and personal reflection, O'Connell critiques traditional approaches to the study of weapons and proposes that understanding their origins and cultural significance is essential for addressing contemporary military challenges. The text highlights the paradoxes of modern warfare, particularly in contexts of limited resources and the allure of arms for nations facing socio-economic difficulties.

Loading...

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

References (1,092)

  1. Karl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. Michael Howard and Peter (Princeton, N.J. 1976), bk. 1, Ch. 1, 24.
  2. Cited in Russell Warren Howe, Weapons: The International Game of Arms, Money, and Diplomacy (Garden City, N.Y.: 1980), 731. Quote confirmed by Brzezinski over tele- phone, November 5, 1987.
  3. Robert L. O'Connell, "Putting Weapons in Perspective," Armed Forces and Society vol.
  4. Trevor Depuy has divided his book, The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare (Fair- fax, Va.: 1984), into "The Age of Muscle," "The Age of Gunpowder," and "The Age of Technological Change." However, he appears to have missed much of the wider signif- icance of the typology and has limited its use to a scheme of organization. Chapter 2 Dialogue With the Sphinx
  5. Jess Stein, ed., The Random House Dictionary of the English Language: The Una- bridged Edition (New York: 1967), 1616.
  6. It appears that chimpanzee flailing, clubbing, and rock throwing also fall into this category. Jane Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge, Mass.: 1986), 550-59.
  7. The destruction of plant life has normally been excluded from the study of aggres- sion. This precedent will be followed here for farm and forestry implements except, as noted earlier, where dual utilization is clearly significant.
  8. The degree to which intraspecific aggression has been emphasized is illustrated by the fact that several authorities (Roger N. Johnson, Aggression in Man and Animals [Phil- adelphia: 1972], 5-6;
  9. Ashley Montagu, ed., Man and Aggression [New York: 1973], 6-7; and D. E. Davis, "The Physiological Analysis of Aggressive Behavior," in Social Behav- ior and Organization Among Vertebrates, ed. W. Etkins [New York: 1964] deny the fact that predation is actually a form of aggression at all. Yet the undeniably violent nature of * 311 most predatory acts has led others, notably Edward O. Wilson (Sociobiology: The Synthesis [Cambridge, Mass.: 1975], 243), to the more logical conclusion that predation is indeed a form of aggression. With regard to victims, Wilson (ibid., 94) noted that the youngest and oldest have the lowest reproduction value and are therefore the least subtrac- tion from the exploited population. See also William S. Laughlin, "Hunting: An Integrat- ing Biobehavior System and Its Evolutionary Importance," in Man the Hunter, Richard B. Lee and Irven De Vore (Chicago: 1966), 313.
  10. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The Abridged Edition (Cambridge, Mass.: 1980), 12.
  11. Edward S. Deevey, Jr. "Life Tables for Natural Populations of Animals," Quar- terly Review of Biology 22 (1947), 283-314.
  12. David McFarland, ed., The Oxford Companion to Animal Behavior (Oxford: 1981), 461; Johnson, Aggression in Man and Animals, 17.
  13. McFarland, Animal Behavior, 129.
  14. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 242-43; Dolf Zillman, Hostility and Aggression (Hillsdale, N.J.: 1979), Ch. 2 and 3.
  15. N. Tinbergen, "Fighting and Threat in Animals," New Biology 14 (1953): 9-24.
  16. Cited in Irenaus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, The Biology of Peace and War: Man, Animals and Aggression (New York: 1979), 38.
  17. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: Abridged Edition, 118-19.
  18. Ibid., 120-22; Johnson, Aggression in Man and Animals, 14-15.
  19. McFarland, Animal Behavior, 7.
  20. I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, "The Fighting Behavior of Animals," Scientific American 205 (1961): 112-22;
  21. C. E. Shaw, "The Male Combat Dance of Crotalid Snakes," Herpetologia 4 (1948): 137-45.
  22. L. Harrison Matthews, "Overt Fighting in Mammals," in The Natural History of Aggression, ed. J. D. Carthy and F. J. Ebling (London: 1964), 27; Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Biology of Peace and War, 37; McFarland, Animal Behavior, 7.
  23. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Biology of Peace and War, 38-39.
  24. J. P. Scott, "Biological Basis of Human Warfare: An Interdisciplinary Problem," in Interdisciplinary Relationships in the Social Sciences, ed. M. Sherif and C. Sherif (Chi- cago: 1969);
  25. Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 90.
  26. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: Abridged Edition, 158-62; Goodall, Chimpanzees of Gombe, 341-50;
  27. Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 69.
  28. Matthews, "Overt Fighting in Mammals," 25-26. See Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 64. S. A. Barnett, "Attack and Defense in Animal Societies," in Aggression and Defense: Neural Mechanisms and Social Patterns, vol. 5, ed. C. D. Clemente and D. B. Lindsley (Berkeley, Calif.: 1967), 45.
  29. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: Abridged Edition, Fig. 15-2. (160-161).
  30. Konrad Lorenz, On Aggression, trans. Marajorie K. Wilson (New York: 1967), 105-12;
  31. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: Abridged Edition, 121-22.
  32. R. A. Rappaport, "The Sacred in Human Evolution," Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2 (1971): 23-44.
  33. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: Abridged Edition, 290-92: Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 96.
  34. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: Abridged Edition, 293.
  35. I am grateful to George N. Appel for clarifying the several anthropological per- spectives and their shortcomings.
  36. The Sphinx, a creature from Greek mythology, asked the question, on pain of death, of all travelers: "What walks on four legs at dawn, two noon, and three at dusk?" The answer, which Oedipus guessed, was a man.
  37. Clifford Jolly, "The Seed Eaters: A New Model of Hominid Differentiation Based on a Baboon Analogy," Man 5, no. 1 (1970): 5-26; E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 565.
  38. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: Abridged Edition, 291-92; Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 96.
  39. See Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 96.
  40. L. S. B. Leakey, "Development of Aggression as a Factor in Early Human and Pre-Human Evolution," in Aggression and Defense, ed. Clemente and Lindsley; R. A. Dart, "The Predatory Transition from Ape to Man," International Anthropological and Linguistic Review I (1953): 201-19;
  41. Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 96-97.
  42. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 567-68.
  43. Glynn L. Isaac, "Traces of Pleistocene Hunters: An East African Example," in Man the Hunter, ed. Lee and De Vore, 259; Leakey, "Development of Aggression,";
  44. R. A. Dart, "The Predatory Implemental Technique of Australopithecus," American Jour- nal of Physical Anthropology 1 (1949): 1-38, or "The Predatory Transition from Ape to Man," International Anthropological and Linguistic Review 1, no. 4 (1953): 201-13; E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 567.
  45. Francis Bourliere (1963) (cited in Sherwood L. Washburn and C. S. Lancaster, "The Evolution of Hunting," in Man the Hunter, ed. Lee and De Vore, 295) demonstrated that 75 percent of the meat available to hunters in the eastern Congo was elephant, buffalo, and hippopotamus. See also Jared Diamond, "The American Blitzkrieg: A Mammoth Un- dertaking," Discover 8, no. 6 (1987): 86. 35. Diamond, "American Blitzkrieg," 88.
  46. L. S. B. Leakey, "A New Fossil Skull from Olduvai," Nature 183 (1959): 491- 93. 37. Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 99-100; E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 573; Washburn and Lancaster, "Evolution of Hunting," 296.
  47. Among others, Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin, (Origins: What New Discoveries Reveal about the Emergence of Our Species [New York: 1977]), along with Roger Lowe and Bernard Tower (Naked Ape or Homo Sapiens? [New York: 1969]), have suggested that early man might have been without aggressive tendencies before learning to use weap- ons. On the other hand, Zillman (Hostility and Aggression) and Leakey ("Development of Aggression"), while appearing to acknowledge the preexistence of intraspecific aggression, basically ignore its possible influence on weapons development and use.
  48. K. R. C. Hall, "Aggression in Monkey and Ape Societies," in Natural History of Aggression, ed. Carthy and Ebling, 50-64.
  49. Lorenz, On Aggression, 233-34.
  50. Goodall, Chimpanzees of Gombe, 503-34.
  51. Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 99.
  52. Dart, "Predatory Transition from Ape to Man," 209.
  53. M. K. Roper, "A Survey of the Evidence for Intrahuman Killing in the Pleisto- cene," Current Anthropology 10 (1969): 427-59.
  54. See, for example, David Pilbeam, "An Idea We Could Live Without: The Naked Ape" in Man and Aggression, ed. Montagu, 118-20; E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 137; and Richard B. Lee, "What Hunters Do for a Living, or, How to Make Out on Scarce Resources," in Man the Hunter, ed. Lee and De Vore, 30-43. 46. See Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Biology of Peace and War, 129-87, for a good summary of 48. Charles Singer, E. J. Holmyard, and A. R. Hall, eds., A History of Technology, vol. 1 (Oxford: 1954), 31, 33, 69.
  55. P. Lieberman, "Primate Vocalization and Human Linguistic Ability," Journal of the Acoustic Society of America, 44 (1968): 1574-84; P. Lieberman, E. S. Crelin, and D. H. Klatt, "Phonetic Ability and Related Anatomy of the Newborn and Adult Human, Neanderthal Man, and the Chimpanzee," American Anthropologist 74, no. 3 (1972): 287- 307. 50. Singer, Holmyard, and Hall, eds., History of Technology, vol. I, 31.
  56. The Plains Indians used the bow against the American bison with considerable success. However, they were greatly aided by the fact that they were mounted on horses, and could thereby inflict multiple wounds.
  57. Photographs of cave painting at Morela la Vella in Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Biology of Peace and War, 128. Original H. Kiihn, Kunst und Kultur der Vorzeit. Das Paldaolithikum (Berlin: 1929).
  58. Zillman, Hostility and Aggression, 100-104; Sally Carrighan, "War Is Not in Our Genes," in Man and Aggression, ed. Montagu, 134-35; Geoffrey Gorer, "Ardrey on Hu- man Nature: Animals, Nations, Imperatives," in Man and Aggression, ed. Montagu, 163. Chapter 3 Genesis
  59. Quincy Wright, A Study of War, vol. 1 (Chicago: 1942), 32-35, 39.
  60. As Stanislav Andreski notes ("Origins of War," in The Natural History of Aggres- sion, ed. Carthy and Ebling, 130), there must always be considerable imprecision surround- ing this topic. However, the defensive fortifications at Jericho have been accurately dated as having been built somewhat before 7000 B.C. Yigael Yadin, The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands: In Light of Archaeological Study, vol. 1 (New York: 1963), 34; Arthur Ferrill, The Origins of War: From the Stone Age to Alexander the Great (London: 1985),
  61. It can be further assumed that Jericho was one of the first such sites and that war's spread was largely subsequent to this time.
  62. Jacob Bronowski, The Ascent of Man (Boston: 1973), 86-88. Ferrill (Origins of War, 28-29) raises the possibility that urban fortification may have preceded agriculture, with populations gravitating to defensible spots first for safety and then resorting to eco- Notes * 315
  63. nomic means suitable for settled habitation. While Ferrill does make the point the evidence does not allow anyone to say with certainty that agriculture was introduced before the walls, Bronowski's sequence of events seems more logical and is therefore more con- vincing.
  64. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 1 (London: 1955), 305-306; Karl Witt- fogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven, Conn.: 1957), 34.
  65. Yadin, Art Warfare, vol. 1, 33-34.
  66. Singer, Holmyard, and Hall, eds., History of Technology, vol. 1, 600, 614-15: Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 1, 45, 60.
  67. Singer, Holmyard, and Hall, eds., History of Technology, vol. 1, 592; Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 1, 40.
  68. Singer, Holmyard, and Hall, eds., History of Technology, vol. 1, 594.
  69. Stanislav Andreski, Military Organization and Society (Berkeley, Calif.: 1968), 40- 41, 88. 10. Ibid., 95.
  70. Wittfogel, 27, 34, 61. Karl Wittfogel, in his book Oriental Despotism, maintains the reverse-that the regimentation necessary to construct the irrigation works of so-called hydraulic societies spilled over into the creation of armed forces. This, however, seems to ignore the need for a considerable coercive capacity in order to recruit the labor for irriga- tion projects in the first place. More likely, it was an interactive process, with military and civilian regimentation reinforcing each other. See also Lewis Mumford, The Pentagon of Power (New York: 1964), 29-30, 99. 12. On the predominance of military affairs in ancient societies and the frequency of war, see Yvon Garlan, War in the Ancient World: A Social History (London: 1975), 15- 16. For an example of an approach based on demographics, see William McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000 (Chicago: 1982), 213-15, 308-15.
  71. Richard Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World (London: 1980), 13-15. 14. Ibid., 15.
  72. William Ellery Leonard, Gilgamesh: Epic of Old Babylonia (New York: 1934), ix.
  73. "Gilgamesh and the Land of the Living," lines 54-55, 88 cited in James Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts: Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, N.J.: 1955), 48-9.
  74. "Gilgamesh and the Land of the Living," lines 56-58, op. cit. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, 48.
  75. "Gilgamesh and Agga," lines 1-40, op. cit. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, 45-6.
  76. The "Stele of Vultures" from Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 1, 134-35. For those overlooking the Sumerian phalanx see, for example, Toynbee, Study of History, vol. 1, annex I, 428; R. Ernest Depuy and Trevor N. Depuy, The Encyclopedia of Military History (New York: 1970).
  77. Andreski, Military Organization and Society, 87-88, 98-99.
  78. "The Legend of Sargon," Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum (London: 1896), 42-43; "Texts from the Beginnings to the First Dynasty of Ba- bylon," cited in Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, 266-267.
  79. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, 268.
  80. Samuel Noah Kramer, The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character (Chicago: 1963), 60-61; Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 19. 24. Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 19-20.
  81. Andreski, Military Organization and Society, 100.
  82. Yadin, An of Warfare, vol. 1. 47, 150.
  83. See, for Garlan, War in the Ancient World, 118; Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 28-29.
  84. Garlan, Warfare in the Ancient World, 118. See Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 1, 193, 240-41 for graphic representation of fighting chariots.
  85. See, for example, Yadin's description of the Battle of Kadesh, Art of Warfare, vol. 1, 103-10.
  86. Cited in Kramer, Sumerians, 63-64.
  87. A. T. Olmstead, The History of Assyria (New York: 1923), 648-9.
  88. Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 24.
  89. Olmstead, History of Assyria, 604; Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 2, 293.
  90. Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 2, 295.
  91. Ibid., vol. 2, 295-96; Olmstead, History of Assyria, 605; Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 27.
  92. Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 2, 299; Olmstead, History of Assyria, 604.
  93. Cavalry is first depicted in the reliefs of the northwestern palace of Ashurnasir-pal (883-859 B.C.) (see Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 2, 381-83), though experiments may have preceded this date considerably. McNeill (Pursuit of Power, 15) hypothesizes that nomads may not have come first, but that the Assyrians may well have introduced military horse riding. He bases this argument solely on physical evidence (i.e., the Assyrians provided the first depiction of horsemen). While this is impossible to refute, the literalist approach is somewhat illogical here since nomads would have far greater use for swift horses and probably had little access to materials to make chariots, assuming they would want them. 38. See plates depicting Assyrian cavalry (Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 2, 382-85, 402, 456-59).
  94. John Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe 1648-1789 (Manchester, Eng.: 1982), 144-45.
  95. Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 1, 20, 147. Yadin is able to show evidence for a very primitive battering ram ca. 1900 B.C. in Egypt, yet its later disappearance argues that it was not well enough developed to be truly effective (70, 159).
  96. Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 2, 314, 388-91.
  97. Cited in Olmstead, History of Assyria, 97. See also similar acts in annals of Ashur- nasir-pal's "Expedition to Carchemesh and Lebanon," Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, 276.
  98. Olmstead, History of Assyria, 207.
  99. Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 33. 45. 1 Sam. 8:11.
  100. This translation cited in Olmstead, History of Assyria, 642. The translation in the King James Bible, Nah. 3:7, reads: "Nineveh is laid waste, who will bemoan her?" Chapter 4 The Greeks 1. Xenophon, The Anabasis (London: 1918), 3.4.10-12.
  101. Ibid., 1.7.18-21, 1.10.4, 11; N. L. G. Hammond, A History of Greece to 322 BC (Oxford: 1959), 451.
  102. M. I. Finley, The World of Odysseus (New York: 1965), 19, 126-27;
  103. F. E. Adcock, The Greek and Macedonian Art of War (Berkeley, Calif.: 1957), 2.
  104. Jasper Griffin, Homer (Oxford: 1980), 1; Finley, World of Odysseus, 3.
  105. Homer, Iliad, trans. Richmond Lattimore (Chicago: 1951), 3.70.
  106. See Yadin, Art of Warfare, vol. 1, 172-73.
  107. Homer Iliad 3.380-82, 4.445-9.
  108. Ibid., 18.478-615.
  109. Hammond, History of Greece, 62.
  110. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, ed. Lionel Giles (Taipei: 1946), xlii-xlix.
  111. See, for example, Thucydides, The History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rich- ard Crawley (Chicago: 1952), 3.104.
  112. Garlan, War in the Ancient World, 18-24.
  113. Finley, World of Odysseus 49, 54-55; G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary, vol.
  114. Cambridge, Eng.: 1985), 336.
  115. Hammond, History of Greece, 81, 98.
  116. The persistent reference to hippeis (horsemen of the wealthiest class) in later census rolls is one such example. See Andreski, Military Organization and Society, 44-45;
  117. Fustel de Coulanges, La Cite Antique (Paris: 1923), 326. P. A. C. Greenhalgh's conclusion (Early Greek Warfare: Horsemen and Chariots in the Homeric and Archaic Ages [Cambridge, Eng.: 1973], 146-51) that these horsemen were actually mounted heavy infantry does not really contradict this political point, although it does blur somewhat the lines between hoplite and aristocrat.
  118. Hammond, History of Greece, 110, plate IV; A. Andrews, The Greek Tyrants (New York: 1963), 31.
  119. Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 170; Charles Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2 (London: 1924), 257. 25. Adcock, Greek and Macedonian Art of War, 4.
  120. Garlan, War in the Ancient World, 120.
  121. Adcock, Greek and Macedonian Art of War, 16.
  122. Hammond, History of Greece, 160, 299; Andrews, Greek Tyrants, 34.
  123. Garlan, War in the Ancient World, 61-63; W. K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War: Part II (Berkeley, Calif.: 1974), 272-73; Adcock, Greek and Macedonian Art of War, 7, 57.
  124. Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Aubrey de Selincourt (Baltimore: 1950), 7.9.417- 18. 32. Polybius 29.17.
  125. Adcock, Greek and Macedonian Art of War, 10-11. On Spartan composure, see J. F. Lazenby, The Spartan Army (Warminister, Eng.: 1985), 4. 34. Adcock, Greek and Macedonian An of War, 8.
  126. Herodotus Histories 1.82.45-6. See also Garlan, War in the Ancient World, 26- 31. 36. Strabo 10.1.12, 448. There is also a passage in Polybius, 13.3.2-7, to the same effect. 37. Yadin, vol. 2, 340-41.
  127. Homer, Odyssey trans. Richmond Lattimore (New York: 1967), 8.30-55, 11.5, 12.165-180; Homer, Iliad 14.1-90.
  128. Hammond, History of Greece, 109. See also plate III A. 41. Casson, The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediter- ranean in Ancient Times (New York: 1959), 83-84.
  129. J. S. Morrison and J. F. Coates, The Athenian Trireme: The History and Recon- struction of an Ancient Greek Warship (Cambridge, Eng.: 1986), 8 n. 3, 25, 35.
  130. J. S. Morrison and R. T. Williams, Greek Oared Ships: 900-322 B.C. (Cambridge, Eng.: 1968) 29, 38-40. Lionel Casson, Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World (Princeton: 1971), 53-56.
  131. A.D., its modern incarnation can be attributed largely to the vigorous pen of W. W. Tarn. In 1905 ("The Greek Warship," in Ancient Ships, ed. Cecil Torr (Chicago: 1964), 154- 95) he argued that previous models of triremes employing rowers on three levels-and the so-called Lenormant relief upon which they were based-were all false interpretations since they required oars of differing lengths for each level. Not only were such sweeps impossi- ble to row together, but it was known absolutely that the oars of the three types of trireme rowers were of the same length. As an alternative, Tarn suggested a one-level ship with the crew arranged in echelin on the order of a Venetian galley but with shorter oars. This, however, when reconstructed by Cook and Richardson (in Ancient Ships, ed. Torr, 196- 206), proved too long to fit into excavated Athenian ship sheds and still retained oars of differing lengths. Nonetheless, Tarn's work stimulated thought and a gradual refinement of hypothetical designs. In 1940, Sinclair Morrison (Morrison and Coates, Athenian Trireme, xiv) was able to demonstrate a three-level design which, by employing an outrigger, ac- commodated oars all of the same length. Subsequently, J. F. Coates and J. S. Morrison conducted an increasingly complex series of experiments with larger and larger sections of such a trireme design. This process culminated in the construction of a full-sized three- level trireme by the "Trireme Trust" and its successful test in the summer of 1987. This would seem to end the debate. 45. Torr, ed., Ancient Ships, 5.
  132. Adcock, Greek and Macedonian Art of War, 33-35; Morrison and Coates, Athen- ian Trireme, 109, 115-16.
  133. Casson, Ancient Mariners, 99-100; Morrison and Coates, Athenian Trireme, 161.
  134. A tradition cited by Clement of Alexandria states that Phoenicians from Sidon invented the trireme. Cited in Donald Harden, The Phoenicians (New York: 1962), 125. 49. Morrison and Coates, Athenian Trireme, 157.
  135. Garlan, War in the Ancient World, 17.
  136. C. Hignett (Xerxes Invasion of Greece [Oxford: 1963], 267ff.) states that there is no agreement among modern sources as to the size of the Persian army other than that it was at least sixty thousand. Herodotus Histories. 7.89.444, 7.184-86.480-81.
  137. Hammond, History of Greece, 466-67; Carleton L. Brownson, "Introduction to the Anabasis," in Anabasis (London: 1918), xii.
  138. Hammond, History of Greece, 345-47.
  139. Thucydides, 2.83-84.409-10.
  140. Diodorus Siculus 14.51-53.
  141. Thucydides 7.36; Morrison and Coates, Athenian Trireme, 167-68.
  142. W. W. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments (Cambridge, Eng.: 1930), 130. Morrison and Coates (Athenian Trireme, 46) note that Aristotle attributed the invention of the "four" to the Carthaginians, while Diodorus (14.41-42) credits Dionysius with the creation of the "five." 60. Thucydides 4.40.457.
  143. J. K. Anderson, Military Theory and Practice in Age of Xenophon (Berkeley, Calif.: 1970), 26, 41-42, 125-26, 138. It strikes me that Anderson takes a somewhat extreme position as to the extent and rapidity with which hoplites shed their armor and even helmets. The general thrust of his argument, however, seems well supported by the evidence. See also Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 149. 62. Hammond, History of Greece, 534-35. 63. Ibid.
  144. Justin 7.5.2; Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 169; Hammond, History of Greece, 537.
  145. Adcock, Greek and Macedonian Art of War, 26; Hammond, History of Greece, 536. 66. Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 170. 67. Ibid., 171.
  146. Hammond, History of Greece, 538, 561-62, 564-65.
  147. Ibid., 570.
  148. W. W. Tarn, Alexander the Great: Narrative vol. 1 (Cambridge, Eng.: 1948), 7. 71. Xenophon The Anabasis 1.8.17-20; Hammond, History of Greece, 451.
  149. Tarn, Alexander the Great, 10-12, Hammond, History of Greece, 603.
  150. Tarn, Alexander the Great, 16, 27, 50; John W. Snyder, Alexander the Great (New York: 1966), 45,73, 119.
  151. Tarn, Alexander the Great, 16; Snyder, Alexander the Great, 44-45.
  152. This view of Alexander is most evident in the otherwise excellent work of W. W. Tarn. See, in particular, W. W. Tarn, "Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind," in Alexander the Great: The Main Problems, ed. G. T. Griffith (Cambridge, Eng.: 1966), 243-306.
  153. Hammond, History of Greece, 570.
  154. Tarn, Alexander the Great, 7. 78. Ibid., 40.
  155. Tarn, Alexander the Great, 115; W. W. Tarn, Hellenistic Civilization (Cleveland: 1952), 14-15.
  156. Andreski (Military Organization and Society, 159) notes that the replacement of the upper stratum is typical of oriental, particularly Chinese, political upheavals. 81. Snyder, Alexander the Great, 87; Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Develop- ments, 112, 105.
  157. Tam, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, 119.
  158. Adcock, Greek and Macedonian Art of War, 54.
  159. Tarn, Hellenistic Civilization, 6; Tarn, Alexander the Great 134-35, 137, 147. 85. Tarn, Hellenistic Civilization, 14, 47, 58.
  160. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, 24. 87. Ibid., 61. 88. Ibid., 73, 78. 89. Stobaeus Flor 4.13.46.
  161. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 69-70 n.4.
  162. E. W. Marsden, Green and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises (Oxford: 1971), 47-49;
  163. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, 104, 113-14.
  164. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, 117.
  165. Ibid., 118; Marsden, Greek and Roman Artillery, 153; A. R. Hall, "Military Tech- nology," in A History of Technology, vol. 2 (Oxford: 1959), 713.
  166. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 36 n. 27.
  167. Lionel Casson, Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World (Princeton, N.J.: 103-4. 96. Diodorus Siculus 19.62, 20.49.
  168. Memnon 13; F. Jacoby, Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker no. 434, 8.5. vol. 3B (Leiden: 1958), 344. 98. Athenaeos 5.36.
  169. Casson, Ships and Seamanship, 108-112.
  170. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, 110-11; Plutarch Demetrius bk. 21. 101. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, 28.
  171. Ancient casualty figures are notoriously inaccurate. Nonetheless, the nature of the weapon, the wounds it inflicted, and the state of medical technology all argue that the toll of the gladius was enormous.
  172. Flavius Vegetius Renatus, "The Military Institutions of the Romans" in The Roots of Strategy, ed. Major Thomas R. Phillips (Harrisburg, Pa.: 1940), 75, 91.
  173. Garlan, Warfare in the Ancient World, 119; Andreski Military Organization and Society, 54.
  174. Lawrence Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire (To- towa, N.J.: 1984), 17, 5. Livy 1.43.
  175. H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World from 753 to 146 (London: 1953), 47.
  176. Ibid., 74; G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier (Ithaca, N.Y.: 1969), 89.
  177. Scullard, History of the Roman World, 96-100.
  178. Keppie, Making of the Roman Army, 21-22; Scullard, History of the Roman World, 128-29.
  179. Keppie, Making of the Roman Army, 19; F. E. Adcock, The Roman Art of War under the Republic (Cambridge, Mass.: 1940), 8-11.
  180. Harry Pratt Judson, Caesar's Army (New York: n.d.), 32-35; Garlan, Warfare in the Ancient World, 126; H. M. D. Parker, The Roman Legions (Oxford: 1928).
  181. Cornelius Cossus won the spolia opima by killing Tolumnius, Prince of Veii (Livy
  182. Scullard, History of the Roman World, 338; Dupuy, The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, 17.
  183. Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 189; Adcock, Roman Art of War, 8-12;
  184. Depuy, Evolution of Weapons, 19.
  185. Vegetius, in Roots of Strategy, pp. 83-84.
  186. Livy, summary of lost bk. 16. We also know from Valerius Maximus (2.3.2) that in 105 B.C. Rutilius introduced instructors from the gladiatorial school of C. Aurelius Scau- rus to train his troops in advanced swordplay. Marius was said to be so impressed by troops trained by Rutilius that he preferred them to his own.
  187. Vegetius, Roots of Strategy, pp. 85-86.
  188. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 19.
  189. In large part the terrible Roman defeats at Cannae and Carrhae caused by this very failing.
  190. Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 189.
  191. Edward Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire (Baltimore: 1976), 16.
  192. Watson, (Roman Soldier, 13) set the total legionary strength at 160,000, excluding the Praetorian Guards and urban cohorts.
  193. Plutarch Pyrrhus 16.5, cited in Scullard, History of the Roman World, 12, 446. 25. Livy 22.19-20.
  194. Andreski, Military Organization and Soci- ety, 77.
  195. B. H. Warmington, Carthage (Baltimore: 1960), 144-49.
  196. Scullard, History of the Roman World, 136-37.
  197. Harden, The Phoenicians, 130.
  198. Polybius 1.20. Hundreds of years before, the Assyrians fought a naval battle almost immediately upon reaching the Asia Minor coast and the sea for the first time. 34. Polybius 1.20-21; Scullard, History of the Roman World, 148; Warmington, Car- thage, 185.
  199. T. Frank, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 8 (Cambridge, Eng.: 1926-32), 685. Warmington (191) places Roman and allied losses at ninety-five thousand.
  200. Scullard, History of the Roman World, 155-56. Warmington (Carthage, 195) notes that in the year 247 a census of those living in the city of Rome showed that over the previous twenty years the number of adult males had decreased by fifty thousand. 37. While Carthaginian casualties are even less certain, Warmington (Carthage, 177) states that the combined total was greater than that of any war to date. Polybius (1.63) also called it "the longest most continuous and most severely contested war known to us in history." He puts Roman losses at seven hundred quinqueremes and those of the Cartha- ginians at five hundred. 38. Polybius 3.62. 39. Ibid., 3.114.
  201. Arnold J. Toynbee, Hannibal's Legacy: The Hannibalic War's Effects on Roman Life, vol. 1 (Oxford: 1965), vi-vii.
  202. Keppie, Making of the Roman Army, 63-64.
  203. Watson, Roman Soldier, 58-59; Keppie, Making of the Roman Army, 66-67; Humble, Warfare in the Ancient World, 207.
  204. Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (Oxford: 1939), 2, 53-54, 60. 44. Ibid., 296-97.
  205. Luttwak, Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, 2.
  206. For Augustus's warning against further conquest, see Tacitus Annals 2.46; Ronald Syme, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 10, 353.
  207. Watson, Roman Soldier, 37, 39. 48. Josephus 3.5.
  208. Cited in H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68 (London: 1970), 267.
  209. Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 1 (New York: 1932), ch. 2, particularly pp. 38, 50.
  210. Luttwak, Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, 128.
  211. T. Pekary, "Studien zur romischen Wahrungs und Finanzgeschichte von 161 bis n. Chr.," Historia 8 (1959): 472-73; Luttwak, Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, 16. 53. Mikhail Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (Ox- ford: 1926), xi-xiii, 353-55, 413.
  212. Luttwak, Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, 121; Watson, Roman Soldier, 141. 55. A. R. Hall, "Military Technology," 703, 719.
  213. Baron de Jomini, The Art of War, trans. G. H. Mendell (Westport, Conn.: 1971), 63.
  214. E. A. Thompson, ed. and trans., A Roman Reformer and Inventor: Being the New Text of the Treatise De Rebus Bellicus (Oxford: 1952), 22. 58. Vegetius, Roots of Strategy, 75.
  215. F. E. Adcock, Marcus Crassus, Millionaire (Cambridge, Eng.: 1966), 48-9, 52-54;
  216. E. G. Heath, Archery: A Military History (London: 1980), 42.
  217. Plutarch Crassus 31.
  218. H. M. D. Parker, A History of the Roman World: From A.D. 138 to 337 (London: 1958), 18-20, 69-70.
  219. Toynbee, Study of History (London: 1934-54), vol. 5, 240, vol. 7, 95-96, 111, 199, vol. 8, 443.
  220. Vic Hurley, Arrows Against Steel: The History of the Bow (New York: 1975), 151, 201.
  221. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, 73-74; Plutarch Crassus 24.
  222. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, 79.
  223. Tacitus Histories 1.79; Plutarch Crassus bk. 25.
  224. Lynn White, Jr., Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford: 1962), 7-9.
  225. Tarn, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, 76, 91-92.
  226. John Keegan, The Face of Battle (New York: 1976), 95, maintains that a large hunter-type horse with an armored rider and saddle (250 pounds), could make twelve to fifteen miles per hour. It is reasonable to assume that an infantryman with half armor could make around five to seven miles per hour.
  227. D. J. A. Ross, "L'originalite de 'Turoldus': Le maniement de la lance," Cahiers de civilization medievals 6 (1963): 127-38; White, Medieval Technology, 1-38 and nn. 135-53;
  228. H. Brunner, "Der Reiterdienst und die an Fange des Lehnwesens," Zeltschrift der Savigny-Stiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte, German Abt., 8 (1887): 1-38. Andreski (Military Organization and Society, 58) also sees the stirrup as critical. 13. For critiques see J. R. Strayer, "Feudalism in Western Europe," in Feudalism in History, ed. R. Coulborn (Princeton, N.J.: 1956), 15-25; Philippe Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, trans. Michael Jones (Oxford: 1984), 181-84;
  229. John Beeler, Warfare in Feu- dal Europe: 730-1200 (Ithaca, N.Y.: 1971), 10-11.
  230. White, Medieval Technology, 27-28; Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, 183. 15. White, Medieval Technology, 27; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378- 1278, vol. 1, 126-29; Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, 184-88.
  231. Beeler, Warfare in Feudal Europe, 25-26.
  232. White, Medieval Technology, 29.
  233. Georges Duby, The Chivalrous Society (London: 1977), 6.
  234. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 1, 104.
  235. Michel Bur, "The Social Influence of the Motte-and-Bailey Castles," Scientific
  236. American, vol. 248, no. 5 (May 1983), 132 ff. Contamine, War in Middle Ages, 31. William Anderson (Castles of Europe from Charlemagne to the Renaissance [New York: 1970], 51) provides a somewhat different interpretation and dates the motte-and-bailey technique considerably later, at least among the Normans.
  237. Charles T. Wood, The Age of Chivalry (New York: 1970), 45, 47; Marc Block, Feudal Society (London: 1961), 39.
  238. R. Allen Brown, Michael Prestwich, and Charles Coulson Castles: A History and Guide (Poole, Eng.: 1980), 14.
  239. A. W. Brogger and Haakon Shetelig, The Viking Ships (Oslo, Norway: 1951), 224, 226, 230.
  240. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 1, 92, 96-97, 105, 108. 25. White, Medieval Technology, 30; Duby, Chivalrous Society, 75-76, 86.
  241. F. M. Stenton, First Century of English Feudalism (Oxford: 1932), 131.
  242. White, Medieval Technology, 32.
  243. Duby, Chivalrous Society, 115-18.
  244. Ibid., 119.
  245. Sidney Painter, William Marshal: Knight Errant, Baron and Regent of England (Baltimore: 1933), 58-59; Georges Duby, William Marshal: The Flower of Chivalry (Bos- ton: 1986), 100-101.
  246. Duby, William Marshal, 73-74; Painter, William Marshal, vii.
  247. Duby, William Marshal, 70. To back up this point, Contamine (War in the Middle Ages, 256) cites a war waged for more than a year after the murder of Count Charles the Good in which about one thousand knights were involved but only seven were killed, almost all accidentally.
  248. White, Medieval Technology, 32.
  249. Gerard J. Brault, ed., The Song of Roland: An Analytic Edition, vol. 2 (University Park, Pa.: 1978), 2304-5, 2316-17.
  250. The Poem of the El Cid, trans. Rita Hamilton and Janet Perry (Manchester, Eng.: 1975), First Cantar, 43 (p. 65).
  251. The Romance of Tristan and Iseult (New York: 1945), 65, 148.
  252. Painter, William Marshal, 162, 165-166.
  253. Duby, Chivalrous Society, 126-27.
  254. Charles Oman, The An of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1515 (Ithaca, N.Y.: 1953), 31, 47-53;
  255. Vic Hurley, Arrows against Steel 127-130; Dupuy, Evolution of Weap- ons, 52-57.
  256. E. J. King, The Knights Hospitallers in the Holy Land (London: 1931);
  257. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, 74-77.
  258. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 64. 43. Ibid. 44. Ibid.
  259. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, 71; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 65; Robert Hardy, Longbow: A Social and Military History (Cambridge, Eng.: 1976), 35.
  260. Kate Norgate, Richard the Lion Heart (New York: 1924), 326-27.
  261. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1515, 67; Beeler, War in Feudal Europe, 44.
  262. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1515, 70; Beeler, Warfare in Feudal Europe, 44-45. For the recourses of those under siege, see Norgate, Richard the Lion Heart, 325-26.
  263. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 69-70.
  264. Oman, Art of War in Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1515, 55; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 66-67.
  265. Richard W. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy: 600-1600 (Montreal: 1980), 83; Brogger and Shetelig, The Viking Ships, 89, 133-34, 179, 181, 187.
  266. Romola Anderson and R. C. Anderson, The Sailing Ship: Six Thousand Years of History (London: 1926), 78, 82; Brogger and Shetelig, Viking Ships, 178.
  267. Unger, Ship in the Medieval Economy, 43, 46, 47-9; Oman, History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 46-48.
  268. Unger, Ship in the Medieval Economy, 120.
  269. Ibid., 140, 150. 56. Ibid., 149.
  270. White, Medieval Technology, 16.
  271. J. J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests (New York: 1971), 44-45;
  272. Hurley, Arrows against Steel, 148-49; H. Desmond Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan and His Conquest of Northern China (New York: 1977), 37.
  273. Martin, Rise of Chingis Khan, 17-21; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 72-73.
  274. The Secret History of the Mongols, trans. Francis Woodman Cleaves (Cambridge, Mass.: 1982), 14.
  275. Saunders, Mongol Conquests, 49; op. cit. Martin, Rise of Chingis Khan, 90.
  276. Saunders, Mongol Conquests, ch. 4, n. 11; BYa. Vladimirtov, The Life of Chingis- Khan (New York: 1930), 63-64.
  277. Saunders, Mongol Conquests, 46, 53-54.
  278. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 71; Saunders, Mongol Conquests, 54, 64.
  279. Saunders, Mongol Conquests, 57.
  280. Ibn al-Athlr, sub anno 628/1231, trans, in E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia, vol. 2 (Cambridge, Eng.: 1902-24), 430.
  281. Hurley, Arrows against Steel, 160-61.
  282. See, for example, Saunders, Mongol Conquests, 59; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 326; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 71-72; Hurley, Arrows against Steel, 161-62.
  283. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 329; Saunders, Mongol Conquests, 85.
  284. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 330-31; Hurley, Arrows against Steel, 161-62; Saunders, Mongol Conquests, 86.
  285. Saunders, Mongol Conquests, 139, 155.
  286. Saunders, Mongol Conquests, 13.
  287. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 375-1515, 77.
  288. Ibid.; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 254.
  289. Ibid., vol. 2, 255; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 375-1515, 76.
  290. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 375-1515, 82.
  291. Op. cit. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 280. 78. Ibid.
  292. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 375-1515, 75-76.
  293. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 274-75.
  294. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Art of War, in Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others, vol. 2 (Durham, N.C.: 1965), bk. 2, 600.
  295. Hardy, Longbow, 38-41; Hurley, Arrows against Steel, 170; Heath, Archery, 112- 15;
  296. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, 152-53.
  297. Magna Carta, 51; Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, 247.
  298. Hardy, Longbow, 18-20. 85. Ibid., 30.
  299. Hurley (Arrows against Steel, notes that a bodkin-point arrow shot from a seventy-five-pound longbow will penetrate a quarter inch of steel plate. The power of the longbow is also testified to by a wound received by William de Briouse in which the arrow passed through the skirts of his mail shirt, his mail breeches, his thigh, and the wood of his saddle frame, and finally dealt his horse a mortal blow. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 59. On rate of fire, see Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 82. See also Keegan, Face of Battle, 98; Hardy, Longbow, 43-14.
  300. Hardy, Longbow, 42-43;
  301. Heath, Archery, 115; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 61-65.
  302. Keegan, Face of Battle, 92, 98, 104.
  303. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 168-74; Hardy, Longbow, 93-95.
  304. Hardy, Longbow, 99, 125-30; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378- 1278, vol. 2, 375.
  305. Hardy, Longbow, 127; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 375-1515, 149.
  306. Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 377-78. See illustra- tion, Hardy, Longbow, 129. tration, Hardy, Longbow, 129.
  307. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, 140.
  308. Unger, Ship in the Medieval Economy, 191.
  309. F. C. Lane, Navires et constructeurs a Venise pendant la Renaissance (Paris: 1965), 93-97, 125-29.
  310. Unger, Ship in the Medieval Economy, 191-92.
  311. Ibid., 192.
  312. T. C. Lethbridge, "Shipbuilding," in History of Technology, vol. 2, ed. Singer, Holmyard, and Hall (Oxford: 1954), 587.
  313. Michael Howard, War in European History (London: 1976), 13, 19.
  314. Robert Boyle, Works, vol. 2 (London: 1772), 65. Boyle states that the "invention of gunpowder hath quite altered the condition of martial affairs over the world, both by sea and land."
  315. Henry W. Hime, (The Origin of Artillery [London: 1915], 124-27) dates the first firm European reference to cannon as not until 1313. A. R. Hall ("Military Technology," 726) states that the gun was certainly in use by 1325. For Chinese invention, see McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 81.
  316. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 24-116.
  317. Bernard Brodie and Fawn Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb (Bloomington, Ind.: 1972), 43; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 83-86.
  318. John U. Nef, War and Human Progress: An Essay on the Rise of Industrial Civili- zation (New York: 1950), 27-28; Maurice Daumas, ed., Histoire general des techniques, vol. 2 (Paris: 1965), 487.
  319. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 86-87; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 98. The French army, for example, was equipped with bronze cannon in the War of 1870.
  320. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 43; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 71.
  321. See also C. N. Bromehead, "Mining and Quarrying to the Seventeenth Century," His- tory of Technology, vol. 2, ed. Singer, Holmyard, and Hall 13, 24.
  322. Nef, War and Human Progress, 43. 10. Ibid.
  323. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 87-88.
  324. Howard, War in European History, 17.
  325. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 113-14; Howard, War in European History, 31; Nef, War and Human Progress, 66-67.
  326. A. R. Hall, "Military Technology," 360; Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 49; Howard, War in European History, 61.
  327. Michael Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus: A History of Sweden: 1611-1632, vol. 2 (London: 1958), 228; Frederick L. Taylor, The Art of War in Italy: 1494-1529 (Cam- bridge, Eng.: 1921), 82.
  328. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 87. For a description of the casting of the Constanti- nople gun, see A. R. Hall, "Military Technology," 363.
  329. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 87-88; Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 51. 18. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. Luigi Ricci (New York: 1940), ch. 4 "Why the Kingdom of Darius, Occupied by Alexander Did Not Rebel against the Successors of the Latter after His Death." 19. Ibid., 53.
  330. Machiavelli, Art of War, 625, 634-40.
  331. Machiavelli, Prince, 52-53.
  332. Charles Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (New York: 1937), 12.
  333. Ibid., 140, 158-59; Oman, Art of War in the Middle Ages: A.D. 378-1278, vol. 2, 309. 24. Taylor, Art of War in Italy, 56.
  334. Blaise de Montluc, Commentaries (Paris: 1911), bk. 1, 50.
  335. C. W. Wedgewood, The Thirty Years War (New Haven, Conn.: 1939), 516.
  336. Howard, War in European History, 33; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 113.
  337. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 116; A. R. Hall, "Military Technology," 355;
  338. Howard, War in European History, 34.
  339. Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 174-75, n. 5; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 114. 30. Howard, War in European History, 60-61; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 141.
  340. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages 210-16 (pre-1500); Machiavelli, Art of War, bk. 2. Also see McNeill's comments on Pursuit of Power, 128) on Maurice of Orange's debt to Vegetius and Aelian.
  341. Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 133; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol.
  342. 2, 172. 33. Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 54.
  343. Howard, War in European History, 21.
  344. Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 146; George Gush, Renaissance Ar- mies: 1480-1650 (Cambridge: 1982), 7.
  345. Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 147-48.
  346. Taylor, Art of War in Italy, 50-52 (Marignano, La Bicocca);
  347. Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 202-3.
  348. Hans Delbruck, History of the Art of War: Within the Framework of Political History, vol. 4 (Westport, Conn.: 1975), 38; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 176-78;
  349. Nef, War and Human Progress, 34.
  350. J. L. Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. 3 (New York: 1856), 555-56.
  351. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 89.
  352. Christopher Duffy, Siege Warfare: The Fortress in the Early Modern World, 1494- 1660 (London: 1979), 8-9.
  353. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 71; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 90; Duffy, Siege Warfare, 20.
  354. Taylor, Art of War in Italy, 89-93, 139-41.
  355. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 90.
  356. See diagrams in McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 92-93. J. R. Hale, Renaissance War Studies (London: 1983), 1-29.
  357. J. R. Hale, "The Development of the Bastion, 1440-1534," in Europe in the Late Middle Ages, ed. John R. Hale (Evanston, I11.: 1965), 466-94.
  358. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 91.
  359. Taylor, Art of War in Italy, 132-33, 143-45; Howard, War in European History, 36-37.
  360. Nef, War and Human Progress, 47-48; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 100.
  361. A History of Technology, vol. 3, ed. Charles Singer, E. J. Holmyard, and A. R. Hall, (Oxford: 1959) 361, 368.
  362. Ibid., 355, 358, 362; Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 59.
  363. Edward MacCurdy, The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci (New York: 1939), 808, 810-11, 813-14, 816, 822-23, 826, 831, 841, 844, 846.
  364. Nef, War and Human Progress, 48, 120-21, 132-33.
  365. Letter, Leonardo da Vinci to Ludovic Sforza ca. 1492, in MacCurdy, Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, 1152-53.
  366. MacCurdy, Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, 850.
  367. J. V. Polisensky, War and Society in Europe 1618-1848 (Cambridge, Eng.: 1978), 77, 154, 217.
  368. Nef, War and Human Progress, 114-15.
  369. David Ayalon, Gunpowder and Firearms in the Mamluk Kingdom (London: 1978), 4, 46, 49-50, 108.
  370. Ibid., 63-69, 58; Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 619.
  371. Ayalon, Gunpowder and Firearms, 98-99; Stanford Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, (Cambridge, Eng.: 1976), vol. 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280-1808, 21.
  372. S. Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, 123.
  373. Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 3 (London: 1934), 33-34, 37-41.
  374. Sir Edward Casey, (History of the Ottoman Turks [London: 1877], 138), states that by 1515 the Turkish army had elaborate artillery and that a portion of the Janissaries bore firearms. Flemish scholar and diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq observed in 1559 that few Janissaries "carried any weapon except muskets, which was their regular arm" (Ex- clamatio, sive de Re Militari contra Turcam instituenda comsilium (Leyden, 1633), letter 3, 246; S. Shaw, Empire of the Gazis, 46.
  375. Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 611-13, 615 (Persia), 618-26 (Mam- luks), 657, 662 (Mohacs);
  376. Ayalon, Gunpowder and Firearms, 109.
  377. Charles Wilson, The Transformation of Europe 1558-1648 (Berkeley, Calif.: 1976), 131-35, 244.
  378. Toynbee, Study of History, vol. 3, 47.
  379. Fray Bernadino de Codex Florentine, in The War of Conquest: How It Was Waged in Mexico, ed. Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dribble (Salt Lake City: 1928).
  380. William H. Prescott, A History of the Conquest of Peru, in History of the Conquest of Mexico and Peru (New York: 1936), 941.
  381. See, for example, Bartolome de Las Casas, History of the Indies, trans. Andree Collard (N.Y.: 1971), bk. 3, Ch. 4 and 5, 182-89.
  382. William H. Prescott, The Conquest of Mexico, in History of the Conquest of Mex- ico and Peru, 609-10.
  383. Winthrop Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550- 1812 (Chapel Hill, N.C.: 1968), 55-56.
  384. C. Wilson, Transformation of Europe, 116-26, 157-58, 231-33; Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 393-94, 459-60.
  385. Garrett Mattingly, The Armada (Boston: 1959), 157.
  386. La Noue, Discourses, 502-19, cited in Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 396. 20. Cited in Edward Grierson, The Fatal Inheritance: Phillip II and the Spanish Neth- erlands (Garden City, N.Y.: 1969), 50.
  387. C. Wilson, Transformation of Europe, 63, 144-45.
  388. John L. Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. 2 (New York: 1906), 129.
  389. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 112-14; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 173- 74. 24. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. 2, 151-52.
  390. Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 555-57. 26. Ibid.
  391. Ibid., 542-43, 548, 546-47.
  392. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. 3, 28.
  393. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 109.
  394. Ibid.; C. Wilson, Transformation of Europe, 136.
  395. See, for example, Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. 2, 344, 382-83.
  396. Geoffrey Parker, "The Military Revolution 1550-1660-a Myth?" Journal of Modern History 48 (1976): 206.
  397. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 113.
  398. Claude Gaier, Four Centuries of Liege Gunmaking (London: 1977), 29-31; Mc- Neill, Pursuit of Power, 113.
  399. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 159-60. McNeill also cites official Prussian statistics compiled after the Seven Years' War showing that weapons, powder, and ammunition accounted for only 1 percent of that country's total expenditures.
  400. C. Wilson, Transformation of Europe, 175-76.
  401. Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 181; Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 92.
  402. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 104; Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H- Bomb, 83.
  403. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 128; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 185; Oman, Art of War in the Sixteenth Century, 570.
  404. Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 183.
  405. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 132.
  406. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 131-33.
  407. Ibid., 131.
  408. Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 187-88.
  409. Mattingly, Armada, 141, 323; and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 68.
  410. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. 2, 384-85.
  411. Ibid., 503.
  412. C. Wilson, Transformation of Europe, 134.
  413. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. 2, 285.
  414. Ibid., 264-265, 306-07.
  415. Mattingly, Armada, 84, G. P. B. Naish, "Ships and Shipbuilding," in History of Technology, vol. 3, ed. Charles Singer, E. J. Holmyard, and A. R. Hall (Oxford: 1959) 474. 52. Michael Lewis, The Spanish Armada (New York: 1968), 62-63. 53. Ibid., 51, 68.
  416. David Howarth, The Voyage of the Armada: The Spanish Story (New York: 1981), 93-94.
  417. Mattingly, Armada, 196; Howarth, Voyage of the Armada, 97-98. Geoffrey Par- ker, "Why the Armada Failed," MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History 1, no. 1 (1988): 18-27.
  418. Mattingly, Armada, 367-70; Howarth, Voyage of the Armada, 206-10.
  419. Howarth, Voyage of the Armada, 215; Mattingly, Armada, 368-69.
  420. Polisensky, War and Society in Europe, 139; Nef, War and Human Progress, 92. 61. Wedgewood, Thirty Years War, 86-88, 123, 275, 301, 449. 62. Ibid., 257.
  421. S. H. Steinberg, The Thirty Years War and the Conflict for European Hegemony 1600-1660 (London: 1967), quoted in C. Wilson, Transformation of Europe, 263. See also T. K. Robb, ed., The Thirty Years War (Boston: 1969) for the main point of Steinberg's argument.
  422. Geoffrey Parker, The Thirty Years War (London: 1984), 211.
  423. See G. Parker, Thirty Years War, 208-15; C. Wilson, Transformation of Europe, 264. 66. Father Roger Mols, Introduction a la demographic historique des las villes d'Europe: du XIV au XVIII siecle (Louvain: 1954), vol. 2, Les resultats, cited in C. Wilson, Trans- formation of Europe, 264.
  424. Wedgewood, Thirty Years War, 256-57.
  425. Ibid., 316.
  426. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 121; Wedgewood, Thirty Years War, 346-47.
  427. Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 191-201.
  428. Howard, War in European History, 57. 72. Ibid., 59.
  429. Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 237-38.
  430. Ibid., 227; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 135.
  431. Howard, 59; Gush, Renaissance Armies, 113.
  432. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 135; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 223-24.
  433. Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 234-35.
  434. Wedgewood, Thirty Years War, 307-19; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, vol. 2, 674.
  435. Frederick Schiller, History of the Thirty Years War (New York: 1885), 365.
  436. Hugo Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis (The Law of War and Peace,) vol. 1, ed. William Whewell (Cambridge: 1853), lix. Chapter 9 When Time Stood Still 1. Childs, Armies and Warfare in 174-77.
  437. Huigh de Groot (Grotius), The Law of War and Peace (Washington: 1901), 318.
  438. Ibid., 321.
  439. Ibid., 361.
  440. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 139. See also Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 42, Table I: Comparative Sizes of European Armies, 1690-1789.
  441. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 77-78; H. W. Koch, The Rise of Modern Warfare: 1618-1815 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: 1981), 69; Theodore Ropp, War in the Mod- ern World (Durham, N.C.: 1959), 41.
  442. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 98-106; Koch, 80.
  443. Schaumburg cited in Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 101.
  444. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 102.
  445. David Chandler, The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough (London: 1976), 38. 14. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 30-35; Howard, War in European History, 70;
  446. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 141; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 145. 15. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 107.
  447. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 41.
  448. Lorenzo Sabine, Notes on Duels and Duelling (Boston: 1855), 6-7, 9-10, 14.
  449. J. G. Mullingen (History of Duelling [London: 1941], 153) notes that during the reign of Louis XIV no less than ten edicts against dueling were issued. However, Nef (War and Human Progress, 308) cites these admonitions as evidence that duels were actually growing less frequent. This is doubtful.
  450. B. C. Truman, The Field of Honor (New York: 1844), 23. The code of Galway specifically prohibits fisticuffs on the grounds that "gentlemen" should not indulge in such behavior.
  451. Sabine, Duels and Duelling, 29-30.
  452. Compte de Saint-Germain, Memoires (Paris: n.d.), 178.
  453. Robert Ergang, The Potsdam Fuhrer: Frederick William, Father of Prussian Mili- tarism (New York: 1941), 84-96, 101-2, 218.
  454. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 65-67.
  455. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 43-45; Ropp, War in the Modern World, 37. 24. Frederick II, "Testimony Politique," 1768, cited in Christopher Duffy, Frederick the Great: A Military Life (London: 1985), 335.
  456. Robert B. Asprey, Frederick the Great: The Magnificent Enigma (New York: 1986), 485; Ergang, Potsdam Fuhrer, 90-93. See also Voltaire's classic description of the eighteenth- century recruitment in which Candide is dragooned into the Bulgarian Army (Candide, ch.
  457. Nef, War and Human Progress, 204-5; Ropp, War in the Modern World, 25-26;
  458. Howard, War in European History, 71-72.
  459. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 80.
  460. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 43; Maurice de Saxe, '"My Reveries," in Roots of Strategy, ed. T. R. Phillips (Harrisburg, Pa.: 1950), 194. See Ropp, War in the Modern World, 38. See also McNeill (Pursuit of Power, 130-33) for the of men subjected to this training.
  461. de Guignard, Ecole de Mars, cited in Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlbor- ough, 103-4.
  462. Howard, War in European History, 64.
  463. Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 29, 145, 165; Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 49, 63.
  464. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 49; Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marl- borough, 165-66.
  465. Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 30, table on percentage of cavalry in armies by nationalities; Child's Table I: Size of French Army over Time 1690-1789 compared with Chandler's table (159) showing Size of French Artillery Establishment, 1689-1748.
  466. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 80-83.
  467. Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 82-84.
  468. Ibid., 80.
  469. Howard, War in European History, 60-61.
  470. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 142; Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 80-81. 41. Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 80. 42. Ibid., 150.
  471. Ibid.; figures taken from Table of Artillery Present at Selected Engagements. 44. Ibid., 178.
  472. E. Picard and L. Jouan, L'Arillerie Frangaise au I8ieme siecle (Paris: 1906), 44- 46. 46. Picard and Jouan, L'Artillierie Francaise, 54-59; Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 189.
  473. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 101.
  474. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 167-68. It required around twenty years for cannon- boring machines to proliferate.
  475. Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 206-8.
  476. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 104-5.
  477. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 115.
  478. Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 185.
  479. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 93; Nef, War and Human Prog- ress, 189.
  480. Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 223-24; Nef, War and Human Progress, 190; Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 93-94. 55. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 134.
  481. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 136.
  482. Circular to all governors from Louis XIV, 6 April 1705, reprinted in Sebastian le Prestre de Vauban, Traite de la defense des places (Paris: 1779), 301-3.
  483. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 21.
  484. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 94.
  485. Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 183.
  486. Julian S. Corbett, Some Principles of Maritime Strategy (London: 1960), 100.
  487. P. K. Kemp, History of the Royal Navy (New York: 1969), 63. Sir Richard Hawkins, Observation (London: 1622), 190.
  488. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 55.
  489. de Guiche cited in Kemp, History of the Royal Navy, 39.
  490. Michael Lewis, The Navy of Britain (London: 1948), 432; Ropp, War in the Mod- ern World, 53.
  491. Robert L. O'Connell, "Dreadnought? The Battleship, the United States Navy and the World Naval Community," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia, 1974, 61-64, 141-51.
  492. E. J. Archibald, The Wooden Fighting Ship in the Royal Navy: 892-1860 (New York: 1968), 24.
  493. John Ruskin cited in Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York: 1934), 208-9.
  494. Archibald, Wooden Fighting Ship, 59.
  495. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 54.
  496. Archibald, Wooden Fighting Ship, 33, 65.
  497. I. F. Clarke, Voices Prophesying War: 1763-1984 (London: 1966), 4-5.
  498. Saxe, "My Reveries," 212-13.
  499. Chapter 10 A World Destroyed
  500. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 104; Ropp, War in the Modern World, 25.
  501. Nef, War and Human Progress, 189-90. The normally sarcastic Saint Simon re- ferred to Vauban as "without question the finest man of his century where sieges and fortifications were concerned," cited in Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 272.
  502. Koch, Rise of Modern Warfare, 117; Chandler, Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 128.
  503. Chandler, (Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, 304) states that Swedish casualties amounted to 9,600 of 21,500 engaged, or almost 45 percent. Childs (Armies and Warfare in Europe, 44) is more conservative, rating casualties at four thousand out of thirteen thousand, or 31 percent.
  504. See Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 155-56.
  505. Cited in Nef, War and Human Progress, 305.
  506. Asprey, Frederick the Great, xvi-xvii; Duffy, Frederick the Great, 2; Ergang, Pots- dam Fuhrer, 163.
  507. Howard, War in European History, 68.
  508. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 29.
  509. Ergang, Potsdam Fuhrer, 94. 11. Ibid., 88-89.
  510. Gaxotte, Frederick the Great, 80.
  511. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 160-69; Gaxotte, Frederick the Great, 343-51, 382.
  512. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 30.
  513. Childs. Armies and Warfare in Europe, 42, Ch. 5.
  514. Howard, War in European History, 73.
  515. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Americans: The Colonial Experience (New York: 1958), 347. 18. Ibid., 347-8.
  516. Erhard Geissler, Biological and Toxin Weapons Today (Oxford: 1986), 8; Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian War after the Conquest Canada: vol. 2 (Boston: 1901), 44; C. H. Sipe, The Indian War after the Conquest of Canada (Harrisburg, Pa.: 1929), 424.
  517. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 104; op. cit. Boorstin, Americans, 351. 21. Boorstin, Americans, 351. 22. Ibid., 370.
  518. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 75-76 n. 18; ed. E. B. Potter, The United States and World Sea Power (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: 1955), 104-105. 24. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 116.
  519. Howard, War in European History, 99.
  520. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 86 and n. 5.
  521. Koch, Rise of Modern Warfare, 198-99; Nef, War in Human Progress, 312.
  522. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 90.
  523. Ibid., 91; Gunther E. Rothenberg, The Art of War in the Age of Napoleon (London: 1977), 35.
  524. Rothenberg, War in the Age of Napoleon, 115; H. Nickerson, The Armed Horde (New York: 1940), 91.
  525. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 84. Rothenberg, War in the Age of Napoleon, 23. 32. Howard, War in European History, 81; Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 106-7.
  526. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 158; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 170-71, 194. 34. Cited in Ropp, War in the Modern World, 92. 35. Ibid.
  527. David G. Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon (New York: 1966), 10, 12-14. 37. Ibid., 25-27.
  528. Cited in Lord Russell of Liverpool, Knight of the Sword (London: 1964), 40.
  529. Napoleon Bonaparte, Correspondence de Napoleon I: vol. 1 (Paris: 1858), nos. 91, 107.
  530. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 155-157; War in the Modern World, 82-83; Roth- enberg, War in the Age of Napoleon, 115.
  531. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 198; Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 110. 42. M. de Bourienne, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte vol. 1 (London: 1836), 349. 43. Rothenberg, War in the Age of Napoleon, 71-72.
  532. Chandler, Campaigns of Napoleon, 236.
  533. Napoleon, Correspondance, vol. 31, 328-29.
  534. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 152; Chandler, Campaigns of Napoleon, 1149. 47. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 157-58.
  535. Rothenberg, War in the Age of Napoleon, 69.
  536. Chandler, Campaigns of Napoleon, 352.
  537. Napoleon, Correspondance, vol. 32, 27.
  538. Ropp, 55; Archibald, Wooden Fighting Ship, 24.
  539. Chandler, Campaigns of Napoleon, 226.
  540. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 97; Oliver Warner, Nelson's Battles (Newton Abbot, Eng.: 1971), 50-64.
  541. Henry A. Kissinger, A World Restored (New York: 1964), 63.
  542. Chandler, Campaigns of Napoleon, 366, 599.
  543. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 210-211, 214.
  544. David Howarth, Trafalgar: The Touch (New York: 1969), 19. 59. Cited in Howarth, Trafalgar, 130.
  545. Warner, Nelson's Battles, 204, 232-34.
  546. Cited in Chandler, Campaigns of Napoleon, 597. 62. Ibid., 603.
  547. Kissinger, World Restored, 18; Chandler, Campaigns of Napoleon, 664-66.
  548. Chandler, Campaigns of Napoleon, 756, 763.
  549. General de Caulaincourt, Memoires, vol. 1 (London: 1950), 108.
  550. General M. de Marbot, Memoires du General Baron de Marbot (Paris: 1891).
  551. Kissinger, World Restored, 7-8, 18-19.
  552. Ibid., 120-33, 203. 70. Ibid., 201. 71. Ibid., 203.
  553. Howard, War in European History, 57; Ropp, War in the Modern World, 38-39.
  554. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 200. Rothenberg, (War in the Age of Napoleon) puts the number conscripted and enrolled between 1800 and 1815 at 1.5 million men. 74. Rothenberg, War in the Age of Napoleon, 81-82; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 213. 75. J. Houdaille, "Pertes de 1'armee de terre sous le premier empire," Population 27 (1972): 50.
  555. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 213-14, 310-17.
  556. Nef, War and Human Progress, 330-37.
  557. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 211.
  558. Ibid., 202-3, n. 37.
  559. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 115.
  560. Ibid.; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 218-19; Rothenberg, War in the Age of Na- poleon, 77-78.
  561. Cited in Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 127; Willy Ley, Rockets, Missiles, and Men in Space (New York: 1968), 61-75.
  562. Cited in Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 118.
  563. Karl von Clausewitz, "Plan of Operations," Strategie aus dem Jahr 1804, 51. 85. Clausewitz, On War, bk. 5, Ch. 4 "Relation of the Three Arms." Chapter 11 Death Machine 1. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 9.
  564. Ibid., 131-32, J. F. C. Fuller, Armament and History; A Study of the Influence of Armament on History from the Dawn of Classical Warfare to the Second World War, (New York: 1945), 110; Dispatch of Lieutenant-General Lord Viscount Gough, London Gazette, 8 October 1841.
  565. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 132; Fuller, Armament and History, 110;
  566. J. W. Fortescue, A History of the British Army, vol. 12 (London: 1927), 180.
  567. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 235-36; Larry Addington, The Pattern of War Since the Eighteenth Century (London: 1984), 85; J. F. C. Fuller, The Conduct of War: 1789-1961 (New Brunswick, N.J.: 1961), 89.
  568. Dennis Showalter, Railroads and Rifles: Soldiers, Technology, and the Unification of Germany (Hamden, Conn.: 1975), 81-82, 95-98.
  569. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 233-34.
  570. O. F. G. Hogg, The Royal Arsenal: Its Background, Origins, and His- tory, vol. 22 (London: 1963), 792-93.
  571. On Fitch see McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 235 and n. 17; J. D. Scott, Vickers: A History (London: 1962), 25.
  572. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 238 n. 27.
  573. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 115-16, 125; Lewis, Navy of Britain, 575.
  574. Commander A. Angas, Rivalry on the Atlantic (New York: 1939), x-xi, 75, 88, 90, 100.
  575. James P. Baxter, The Introduction of the Ironclad Warship (New York: 1920), 13- 14;
  576. Harold Sprout and Margaret Sprout, The Rise of American Naval Power: 1776-1918 (Princeton, N.J.: 1959), 126.
  577. Grady McWhiney and Perry D. Jamieson, Attack and Die: The Civil War, Military Tactics, and Southern Heritage (Montgomery, Ala.: 1982), 6, 49, 56, 60.
  578. U.S. War Department, Report of the Secretary of War and Accompanying Docu- ments for the Year 1854 (Washington, D.C.: 1854), 20.
  579. McWhiney and Jamieson, Attack and Die, 27-40. James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: 1988), 4-5. 16. McWhiney and Jamieson, Attack and Die, 5, 7.
  580. General Daniel H. Hill cited in McWhiney and Jamieson, Attack and Die, 4. 18. McWhiney and Jamieson, Attack and Die, 7.
  581. Lincoln cited in Bruce Catton, This Hallowed Ground: The Story of the Union Side of the Civil War (New York: 1956), 228.
  582. Cited in Bruce Catton, Grant Takes Command (Boston: 1968), 253. 21. Ibid., 262.
  583. Stephen Crane, The Red Badge of Courage (New York: 1963), 28.
  584. Catton, This Hallowed Ground, 339-40.
  585. Lyman cited in McWhiney and Jamieson, Attack and Die, 75.
  586. Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant, vol. 2 (New York: 1886), 307-15.
  587. Gilbert W. Beebe and Michael DeBakey, Battle Casualties (Springfield, Mass.: 1952), cited in Dupuy, The Evolution of Weapons, Table 4, 171.
  588. John L. Collins, "When Stonewall Jackson Turned Our Right," in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. 3, ed. Robert U. Johnson and Clarence C. Buel (New York: 1956), 183.
  589. John S. Mosby, The Memoirs of Colonel John S. Mosby (Bloomington, Ind.: 1959), 30. 29. Cited in Jay Luvaas, The Military Legacy of the Civil War (Chicago: 1959), 56. 30. Letter, Stephen Mallory to C. M. Confrad, chairman of Committee on Naval Af- fairs, Confederate States House of Representatives, 8 May 1861, cited in Sprout and Sprout, American Naval Power, 156.
  590. Frank M. Bennett, The Monitor and the Navy under Steam (Boston: 1900), 132- 33. 32. Luvaas, Military Legacy of the Civil War, 12, 226-29.
  591. Fuller, Conduct of War, 113; Ropp, War in the Modern World, 114, 137-39.
  592. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 179-80; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 248.
  593. Howard, War in European History, 99.
  594. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 143; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 253-54, Mi- chael Howard, The Franco-Prussian War (London: 1961), 3.
  595. Howard, The Franco-Prussian War, 249; Ropp, 143; Howard, Franco-Prussian War, 43-44. Howard, Franco-Prussian War, 2.
  596. Kissinger, World Restored, 157.
  597. William Manchester, The Arms of Krupp (Boston: 1968), 38-41.
  598. Manchester, Arms of Krupp, 83-84; Peter Batty, The House of Krupp (London: 1966), 70.
  599. Manchester, Arms of Krupp, 65-66. 43. Ibid., 84-88.
  600. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 252. 45. Cited in Edward Crankshaw, Bismarck (London: 1981), 122.
  601. Ibid., 133. In fact, it appears that the original phrase was "iron and blood," which was later turned around for euphony.
  602. Letter to Johanna (wife), 9 July 1866, in Bismarck: Die gesammelten Werke, vol. 14, ed. H. von Petersdorff et al. (Berlin: 1923), 717.
  603. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 253-54; Eric J. Leed, No Man's Land: Combat and Identity in World War I (Cambridge, Eng.: 1979), 16-17, 51-55.
  604. Howard, Franco-Prussian War, 27-28; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 247; Crank- shaw, Bismarck, 172-73.
  605. Crankshaw, 213-14; Ropp, War in the Modern World, 151; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 249-50.
  606. Howard, Franco-Prussian War, 229-32, 249-56, 434-39. 52. Ibid., 35. 53. Ibid., 212-13.
  607. Ardant du Picq, Battle Studies: Ancient and Modern Battles (New York: 1921), 101-2, 113, 181, 229.
  608. Fuller, Armament and History, 118; Manchester, Arms of Krupp, 119-22.
  609. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 145; Fuller, Conduct of War, 119-20.
  610. Howard, Franco-Prussian War, 36 n. 6.
  611. George H. Quester, Offense and Defense in the International System (New York: 1977), 79-80.
  612. Stephen Van Evera, "Why Cooperation Failed in 1914," World Politics 38 (Oc- tober 1985): 85-88, 90-95, 101-3. Chapter 12 On the High Seas and Out of Sight
  613. Reinhard Scheer, Germany's High Seas Fleet in the World War (London: 1920), 3.
  614. John Toland, The Rising Sun in the Pacific: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire: 1936-1945 (New York: 1970), 477.
  615. O'Connell, "Dreadnought?" 99.
  616. William Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships: Comprising a Discussion of the Present Standpoint and Recent War Experiences (New York: 1920), 96.
  617. Cited in Elting Morison, Admiral Sims and the Modern American Navy (Cambridge, Mass.: 1942), 19.
  618. Alfred Thayer Mahan, From Sail to Steam (New York: 1907), 197.
  619. Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History: 1660-1783 (New York: 1890), 2.
  620. Letter, Theodore Roosevelt to Mahan, 12 May 1890, Mahan Papers, Library of Congress; Ernest R. May, American Imperialism (New York: 1968), 198, 201-2; Sprout Notes * 337
  621. and Sprout, Rise of American Naval Power 207; Letter, Hilary A. Herbert Mahan, 4 October 1893, Mahan Papers.
  622. W. D. Puleston, The Life of Admiral Mahan (New Haven, Conn.: 1939), 149; Louis Hacker, "The Incendiary Mahan," Scribner's Magazine, April 1934, 318.
  623. Arthur J. Marder, Anatomy of British Sea Power (New York: 1940), 47. 11. History of the United States War College: 1884-1958 (Newport, R.I.: 1959), 3 (document on file at Operational Archives, Washington Naval Yard).
  624. Francis J. McHugh, "Gaming at the Naval War College," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings (March 1964): 49-50;
  625. Bradley A. Fiske, The Navy as a Fighting Machine (New York: 1917), 152-53;
  626. A. P. Niblack, "The Jane Naval Game," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 29, no. 3 (September 1903): 581.
  627. Fiske, Navy as a Fighting Machine, 126-27.
  628. Rear Admiral Stephen B. Luce, "Our Future Navy," U.S. Naval Institute Pro- ceedings 15, no. 4 542-43.
  629. Lieutenant Commander Richard Wainwright, "Tactical Problems in Naval War- fare," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 21, no. 2, (1895): 257. 16. Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships, 15, 71.
  630. H. M. Le Fleming, The ABC Warships of World War I (London: 1962), 11.
  631. Letter, Home Poundstone to William S. Sims, 15 August, 1905, William S. Sims Papers, Library of Congress.
  632. Richard Hough, The Death of the Battleship (New York: 1963), 6.
  633. Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships, 452. 21. Ibid.
  634. Theodore Ropp, "Continental Doctrines of Sea Power," in The Makers of Modern Strategy, ed. Edward M. Earle (Princeton, N.J.: 1943), 447.
  635. Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships, 264; ed. Potter, United States and World Sea Power, 392.
  636. Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships, 263.
  637. O'Connell, "Dreadnought?" 188.
  638. Richard Knowles Morris, John P. Holland (Annapolis, Md.: 1966), 89. 27. Testimony of Admiral George Dewey taken by the House Committee on Naval Affairs, 23 April 1900, Dewey Papers, Library of Congress.
  639. Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships, 310; Philip K. Lundeberg, "Undersea Warfare and Allied Strategy in World War I, to 1916," The Smithsonian Journal of History 6, no. 3, (1966): 6.
  640. Bernard Brodie, A Layman's Guide to Naval Strategy (Princeton: 1942), 252; Re- port of the Reconciling Committee on Question 21, U.S. Naval War College, 21 August 1909, Sims Papers.
  641. Cited in Arthur J. Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow: The Royal Navy in the Fisher Era, vol. 1 (London: 1961), 332.
  642. John A. Fisher, Memories and Records: vol. 2 (New York: 1920), 175.
  643. E. Morison, Admiral Sims, 84.
  644. Ibid., 81-86, 132. See also W. S. Sims, "The Remarkable Record Target Practice, H.M.S. Terrible," 15 March 1901, Sims Papers.
  645. E. Morison, Admiral Sims, 142, 241-42; Letter, Scott to Sims 19 August 1906, Sims Papers.
  646. O'Connell, "Dreadnought?" 216; Letter, Theodore Roosevelt to Poundstone, 27
  647. December 1902, Poundstone Papers, Naval Museum, U.S. Naval Academy.
  648. Vitorio Cuinberti, "An Ideal Battleship for the British Fleet," Jane's Fighting Ships (London: 1903), 407.
  649. Fisher, Memories and Records, vol. 2, 197.
  650. Hough, Death of the Battleship, 19-20.
  651. O'Connell, "Dreadnought?" 223; Arthur Marder, The Anatomy of British Sea Power (New York: 1940), Ch. XXVII; Arthur J. Marder, "Fisher and Genesis of the Dreadnought," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings (October 1956).
  652. Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships, 443; Charles Domville-Fife, The Subma- rine and Seapower (New York: 1923), 198.
  653. E. Morison, Admiral Sims, 172-73; Letter, Poundstone to Sims, 15 August 1905, Sims Papers; Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships, 139-40.
  654. Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships, 228; Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 1, 44; Richard Hough, The History of the. Modern Battleship: Dreadnought (New York: 1964), 84.
  655. Hough, History of the Modern Battleship, 24.
  656. Cited in Barbara Tuchman, The Guns of August (New York: 1962), 6.
  657. Letter, Baron Friedrich von Holstein to Paul Hatzfeld, 9 April 1987, cited in Jon- athan Steinberg, Yesterday's Deterrent: Tirpitz and the Birth of the German Battle Fleet (London: 1965), 117.
  658. Steinberg, Yesterday's Deterrent, 330.
  659. Walter Millis, Arms and Men (New York: 1960), 189.
  660. Alfred T. Mahan, "Reflections Historic and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the Sea of Japan," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings (June 1906): 452.
  661. Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. 1 (New York: 1923), 33. Chapter 13 Prelude
  662. St. Petersburg Convention, Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive Projectiles under 400 grams Weight, in Adam Roberts and Richard Guelff, eds., Docu- ments on the Laws of War (Oxford: 1982), 29. 2. Ibid.
  663. Speech by Sir John Ardagh, 22 June 1899, The Proceedings of The Hague Peace Conference (London: 1920), 286-87.
  664. Edward M. Spiers, "The Use of the Dumdum Bullet in Colonial Warfare," The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (1975): 9.
  665. John Ellis, The Social History of the Machine Gun (New York: 1975), 46.
  666. Ibid., 70.
  667. G. W. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartoum (London: 1898), 300.
  668. Ellis, Social History of the Machine Gun, 89.
  669. Hilaire Belloc, "The Modern Traveler," cited in Ellis, Social History of the Ma- chine Gun, 94.
  670. Cited in T. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia: 1897-98 (London: 1967), 121. 12. Cited in Ellis, Social History of the Machine Gun, 96.
  671. Christopher Hibbert, The Great Mutiny: India 1857 (New York: 1977), 47, 55. 14. Ibid., 61, 64, 73-74.
  672. Pat Barr, The Coming of the Barbarians: The Opening of Japan to the West (New York: 1967), 15-16, 26-27.
  673. E. H. Norman, Japan's Emergence as a Modern State: Political and Economic Problems of the Meiji Period (New York: 1940), 65-66. 18. Ibid., 132.
  674. Clive Trebilcock, "British Armaments and European Industrialism," Economic History Review 26 254-72;
  675. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 292.
  676. Norman, Japan's Emergence, 128, 132-33.
  677. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 202.
  678. Clarke, Voices Prophesying War, 64, 68.
  679. Roberts and Guelff, Documents on the Laws of War, 35; William I. Hull, The Two Hague Conferences and their Contributions to International Law (Boston: 1908), 2-3. 25. Hull, 45-46;
  680. Joseph H. Choate, The Two Hague Conferences (Princeton, N.J.: 1913), 13.
  681. Hull, Two Hague Conferences, 48.
  682. Choate, Two Hague Conferences, 13-15; Declaration (IV, 2) Concerning As- phyxiating Gases, in Roberts and Guelff, Documents on the Laws of War, 35. 28. Cited in Hull, Two Hague Conferences, 87.
  683. Declaration (IV, 3) Concerning Expanding Bullets (1899), and Convention VIII Relative to the Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines (1907), in Roberts and Guelff, Documents on the Laws of War, 40-42, 86-92.
  684. I. S. Bloch, The Future of War in its Technical, Economic, and Political Relations, abridged (Boston: 1902), xvi, Ixi-lxii.
  685. Ibid., 251, 266, 293, 315.
  686. Ibid., 103, 109-10, 121.
  687. A. Conan Doyle, Danger (London: 1913), 16. 34. Ibid., 40.
  688. Fitzgerald cited in Clarke, Voices Prophesying War, 105. 36. Ibid., 101-2.
  689. Ibid., 102.
  690. H. G. Wells, The World Set Free (London: 1926), 116.
  691. Bernadotte E. Schmitt and Harold Vedeler, The World in the Crucible (New York: 1984), xv.
  692. Jack L. Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914 (Ithaca, N.Y.: 1984), 39.
  693. Steven Van Evera, "Why Cooperation Failed in 1914," 83; Scott D. Sagan, "1914
  694. Revisited: Allies, Offense, and Instability," International Security vol. 2, no. 2 (Fall 1986): 166-67.
  695. Snyder, Ideology of the Offensive, 199.
  696. Quester, Offense and Defense, 112.
  697. Snyder, Ideology of the Offensive, 21, 150-55.
  698. Henri Isselin, The Battle of the Marne (New York: 1966), 11, 239.
  699. Ibid., 236.
  700. Keegan, Face of Battle, 229-30.
  701. Fuller, Conduct of War, 160.
  702. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 217.
  703. Richard Hough, The Great Dreadnought: The Strange Story of the H.M.S. Agin- court (New York: 1967), 13; Winston S. Churhill, The World Crisis, vol. (New York: 1923), 545.
  704. Milne cited in Thomas G. Frothingham, The Naval History of the Great War, vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.: 1924), 84.
  705. Telegram, Tirpitz to Souchon, 4 August 1914, cited in Geoffrey Bennett, Naval Battles of the First World War (New York: 1969), 30.
  706. Wray's testimony, Troubridge court-martial, cited in Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 2, 35.
  707. Alfred P. von Tirpitz, My Memoirs, vol. 2 (New York: 1919), 82.
  708. Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 3, 189.
  709. Ibid., vol. 2, 42; Scheer, Germany's High Seas Fleet, 25.
  710. Geoffrey Bennett, The Battle of Jutland (Philadelphia: 1965), 36.
  711. Churchill cited in Hough, History of the Modern Battleship, 147; John Rushworth Jellicoe, The Grand Fleet, 1914-1916: Its Creation, Development, and Work (New York: 1919), 397-98.
  712. Sir David Beatty, cited in Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 2, 398.
  713. Jellicoe, Grand Fleet, 207; A. A. Hoeling, The Great War at Sea (New York: 1965), 59.
  714. Kenneth Edwards, We Dive at Dawn (London: 1924), 369.
  715. Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 2, 349.
  716. Bernard Brodie, Sea Power in the Machine Age (New York: 1941), 71.
  717. Frothingham, Naval History of the Great War, Vol. I, 102.
  718. Letter, John Jellicoe to the Admiralty, 30 October 1914, cited in G. Bennett, Naval Battles of the First World War, 152.
  719. Tirpitz, My Memoirs, vol. 2, 415; memorandum by Hugo von Pohl, 7 November 1914, cited in Scheer, High Seas Fleet, 222.
  720. Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 2, 345.
  721. Colin Simpson, "Lusitania," Life Magazine, 13 October 1972, 58-80.
  722. Samuel Dumas and K. O. Vedel-Petersen, Losses of Life Caused by War (London: 1923), vol. 2, The World War 139.
  723. Diary, George von Muller, 9 February 1916, cited in Walter Gorlitz, The Kaiser and His Court: Diaries, Notebooks, and Letters of George von Muller (London: 1961), 133-34;
  724. Tirpitz, My Memoirs, vol. 2, 202, 424. 35. Kitchener cited in Fuller, Conduct of War, 160.
  725. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 227; Addington, Pattern of War, 135-36.
  726. Schmitt and Vedeler, World in the Crucible, 76-77.
  727. Robert Harris and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher Form of Killing (New York: 1982), 1-2;
  728. L. F. Haber, The Poison Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War (Oxford: 1986), 34.
  729. Ulrich Trumpener, "The Road to Ypres: The Beginnings of Gas Warfare in World War I," Journal of Modern History 47 (September 1975): 464, 466, 471.
  730. Ian V. Hogg, Gas (New York: 1975), 25-28.
  731. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare (Stockholm: 1971), vol. 1, The Rise of CB Weapons, 36; Hogg, Gas, 136. 43. Tappen to Reichsarchiv, 16 July 1930, cited in Trumpener, "Road to Ypres," 468. 44. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 317.
  732. Leed, No Man's Land, 104.
  733. Keegan, Face of Battle, 231-36. 48. Ibid., 245.
  734. Leed, No Land, 116.
  735. On the paradox see Paul Fussell, The Great War in Modern Memory (London: 1975), 115; Leed, No Man's Land, 115.
  736. Leed, No Man's Land, 108.
  737. Donald MacIntyre, Jutland (New York: 1958), 100; Bennett, Battle of Jutland, 50. 53. Bennett, The Battle of Jutland, 84.
  738. MacIntyre, Jutland, 143-44; G. Bennett, Battle of Jutland, 50. 55. Jellicoe cited in Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 3, 85.
  739. G. Bennett, Naval Battles of the First World War, 78.
  740. Jellicoe cited in Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 3, 104.
  741. Holloway Frost, The Battle of Jutland (Annapolis, Md.,: 1936), 328; MacIntyre, Jutland, 173; G. Bennett, Battle of Jutland, 113.
  742. Scheer, Germany's High Seas Fleet, 155.
  743. George von Hase, Kiel and Jutland (London: 1921), 286. 61. Ibid., 289.
  744. G. Bennett, Battle of Jutland, 121; Frost, Battle of Jutland, 384.
  745. Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 3, 203; G. Bennett, Battle of Jutland, 203.
  746. Frost, Battle of Jutland, 205.
  747. Scheer cited in A. A. Hoeling, The Great War at Sea, 150-51. G. Bennett, Battle of Jutland, 163.
  748. Memorandum, John Jellicoe to the First Lord of the Admiralty, 20 October 1916, cited in Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 3, 256.
  749. E. Morison, Admiral Sims, 341-42.
  750. W. S. Sims, First Detailed Report on the Allied Naval Situation, 19 April 1917, Sims Papers; cable, Woodrow Wilson to Sims, 4 July 1917, Sims Papers.
  751. Ray Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, vol. 7 (New York: 1939), 140, 147.
  752. John Jellicoe, The Crisis of the Naval War (New York: 1921), 59-60; Marder, From Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. 4, 71.
  753. Arthur Hezlet, The Submarine and Sea Power (New York: 1967), 93; Philip K. Lundeberg, "Undersea Warfare and Allied Strategy in World War I: 1916-1918," The Smithsonian Journal of History vol. 6, no. 4 (Winter 1966-67), 62-63.
  754. E. Morison, Admiral Sims, 413-17.
  755. Schmitt and Vedeler, World in the Crucible, 305.
  756. Ezra Bowen, Knights of the Air (Alexandria, Va.: 1980), 37. 75. Ibid., 39.
  757. Lloyd George cited in Bowen, Knights of the Air, 18.
  758. Edward V. Rickenbacker, Rickenbacker (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: 1979), 106. 78. Ibid., 116.
  759. Leed, No Man's Land, 134.
  760. Herbert Sulzbach, With the German Guns (Hamden, Conn.: 1981), 113; A. Stuart Dolden, Cannon Fodder: An Infantryman's Life on the Western Front (London: 1980), 87. 81. Cited in Bowen, Knights of the Air, 19; Rickenbacker, Rickenbacker, 110. 82. Leed, No Man's Land 116, 123, 135.
  761. Raymond Fredette, The Sky on Fire: The First Battle of Britain: 1917-1918 (Lon- don: 1976), 39-40, 133-36.
  762. Tirpitz cited in Fredette, Sky on Fire, 160.
  763. B. H. Hart, The Revolution in Warfare (London: 1946), 95.
  764. Isaac Don Levine, Mitchell: Pioneer of Air Power (New York: 1943), 143. 88. Ibid., 147.
  765. Winston Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. 2, 61. 90. Ibid., 63-68.
  766. Memorandum, E. D. Swinton, 6 February 1916, cited in Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 221-22.
  767. Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 222-23.
  768. Schmitt and Vedeler, World in the Crucible, 299-300.
  769. Ibid., 299.
  770. I. B. Holley, Ideas and Weapons: Exploitation of the Aerial Weapon by the United States during World War I (New Haven, Conn.: 1953), 171. 96. Schmitt and Vedeler, World in the Crucible, 195-96.
  771. Cited in N. N. Golovin, The Russian Army in the World War (New Haven, Conn.: 1931), 281.
  772. Ropp, War in the Modern World, 247; Dupuy, Evolution of Weapons, 225-27. 99. Cited in Schmitt and Vedeler, World in the Crucible, 260.
  773. Arno J. Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and Coun- terrevolution at Versailles, 1918-1919 (New York: 1967), 3. Chapter 15 Sequel 1. Toynbee, Hannibal's Legacy, vol. 1, 1-2.
  774. Robert Goralski, World War II Almanac: 1931-1945 (New York: 1981) 425-29.
  775. E. Morison, Admiral Sims, 504-05.
  776. Letter, W. S. Sims to Brigadier General William Mitchell, 8 April 1921; Letter, Mitchell to Sims, 14 April 1921, Sims Papers.
  777. Letter, C. E. Hughes to W. F. Fullam, 2 January 1923; Letter, Fullam to Hughes, 22 December 1923, Charles Evans Hughes Papers, Library of Congress.
  778. For negotiations leading up to aircraft carrier allotments, see diary of Theodore Roosevelt Jr., 4-11 January 1922, Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., Papers, Library of Congress.
  779. Raymond G. O'Connor, Perilous Equilibrium: The United States and the London Naval Conference of 1930 (Lawrence, Kans.: 1962), 61, 105; Edward Arpee, From Frig- ates to Flat-Tops: The Story of the Life and Achievements of Rear Admiral William Adger Moffett (Lake Forest, 111.: 1953), 173-78.
  780. George V. Fagan, "FDR and Naval Limitation," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings 81, no. 4 (April 1955): 416.
  781. Remarks of Admiral W. V. Pratt, Fleet Problem IX, cited in Arpee, From Frigates to Flat-Tops, 155.
  782. Ronald H. Spector, Eagle against the Sun: The American War with Japan (New York: 1985), 43; Toland, Rising Sun, 476-77;
  783. Stephen Roskill, Naval Policy between the Wars, vol. 1 (New York: 1968), 530.
  784. Jiro Horikoshi, Eagles of Mitsubishi: The Story of the Zero Fighter (Seattle: 1980, trans. from the 1970 Japanese edition), 93-109.
  785. Hovgaard, Modern History of Warships, 298; Toland, Rising Sun, 477.
  786. Letter, C. C. Bloch to W. D. Leahy, 12 April 1938; Letter, Leahy to Bloch, May 13, 1938, Claude C. Bloch Papers, Library of Congress.
  787. Toland, Rising Sun, 477.
  788. Samuel Elliot Morison, History of the United States Naval Operations in War II (Boston: 1948), vol. 3, The Rising Sun in the Pacific, 23.
  789. Linus Pauling, ed., Encyclopedia of Peace, vol. 1 (Oxford: 1986), 359.
  790. Marion W. Boggs, Attempts to Define and Limit "Aggressive" Armaments in Di- plomacy and Strategy (Columbia, Mo.: 1941), 46-60.
  791. Barton Whaley, Covert German Rearmament, 1919-1939: Deception and Misper- ception (Frederick, Md.: 1984), 1.
  792. Manchester, Arms of Krupp, 320.
  793. Whaley, Covert German Rearmament, 29; Manchester, Arms of Krupp, 353-54;
  794. Anthony Fokker and Bruce Gould, Flying Dutchman: The Life of Anthony Fokker (New York: 1931), 222-26.
  795. John Erickson, The Soviet High Command: A Military Political History (Boulder, Colo.: 1984), 157. 22. Ibid., 260. 23. Ibid., 274.
  796. Heinz Guderian, Panzer Leader (London: 1952), 30.
  797. Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (New York: 1970), 163.
  798. Goodspeed, German Wars, 355.
  799. Alistair Home, To Lose a Battle: France 1940 (Boston: 1969), 78-79; Whaley, Covert German Rearmament, 65.
  800. John Strawson, Hitler as a Military Commander (London: 1971), 61.
  801. Ronald H. Bailey, The Air War in Europe (Alexandria, Va.: 1979), 26-27.
  802. Bernard Brodie and Fawn Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, rev. ed. (Bloom- ington, Ind.: 1973), 207.
  803. Bailey, Air War in Europe, 22; Bernard Fitzsimons, ed., Warplanes and Air Bat- tles of World War II (London: 1973), see British bomber chart. 32. Brooke quoted in Home, To Lose a Battle, 107-8.
  804. Strawson, Hitler as a Military Commander, 244.
  805. Ibid., 240. A. J. P. Taylor argued implacably against this point of view. However, Albert Speer's Erinnerungen makes it clear he planned to wage war from the beginning. 35. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, 209, 213.
  806. Martin van Creveld, Fighting Power: German and U.S. Army Performance, 1939- 1945 (Westport, Conn.: 1982), 5-6.
  807. Eberhard Jackel, Hitler's Weltanschauung: A Blueprint for Power (Middletown, Conn.: 1972), 61.
  808. Hitler quoted in Strawson, Hitler as a Military Commander, 213. 39. Home, To Lose a Battle, 102.
  809. William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: 1960), 734- 35. 41. Erich von Manstein, Lost Victories (London: 1955), 166.
  810. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 217; Edward Jablonski, Airwar (Garden City, N.Y.: 1971), vol. 1, Terror from the Sky, 40. 43. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, 218.
  811. Ibid., 217-21; Charles B. MacDonald, The Mighty Endeavor: The American War in Europe (New York: 1986), 61. 45. Strawson, Hitler as a Military Commander, 148.
  812. Bader quoted in Jablonski, Airwar, vol. 1, 161.
  813. Cherwell quoted in Bailey, Air War in Europe, 54.
  814. Montgomery quoted in Strawson, Hitler as a Military Commander, 132.
  815. Hitler quoted in Manchester, Arms of Krupp, 431. See also Goodspeed, Wars, 388-89.
  816. Guderian, Panzer Leader, 151.
  817. Erickson, Soviet High Command, 587-600; Alan Clark, Barbarossa: The Russian- German Conflict, 1941-1945 (New York: 1965), 31, 50.
  818. Cited in Clark, Barbarossa, 43. See also Manstein, Lost Victories, 180-81.
  819. Erickson, Soviet High Command, 655.
  820. Clark, Barbarossa, 182; Strawson, Hitler as a Military Commander, 144-41.
  821. Von Hardesty, Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power, 1941-1945 (Washing- ton, D.C.: 1982), 61.
  822. Clark, Barbarossa, 207.
  823. S. L. Mayer, ed., The Russian War Machine, 1917-1945 (London: 1977), 44, 195;
  824. Hardesty, Red Phoenix, 146. 58. Mayer, The Russian War Machine, 116. 59. Ibid., 117.
  825. Guderian, Panzer Leader, 143. 61. Ibid., 233.
  826. Seymour M. Hersh, Chemical and Biological Warfare: America's Hidden Arsenal (Indianapolis: 1968), 8-9; Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare: Rise of CB Weapons 71-3, 317. 63. Bailey, Air War in Europe, 185.
  827. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, 365, 368; Walter Dornberger, V-2 (London: 1952), 241. 65. MacDonald, Mighty Endeavor, 317.
  828. Basil Collier, The Battle of the V-Weapons, 1944-1945 (New York: 1965), 150- 51; Dornberger, V-2, 245-47.
  829. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, 225-29.
  830. S. E. Morison, United States Naval Operations, vol. 3, 131-32; Arthur R. Hezlet, Aircraft and Sea Power (New York: 1970) 200-2; Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 83. 69. Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 147-48.
  831. Ernest J. King, Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record (New York: 1952), 291;
  832. William F. Halsey and J. Bryan, Admiral Halsey's Story (New York: 1947), 15, 52. 71. Toland, Rising Sun, 150.
  833. Charles A. Beard, President Roosevelt and the Coming of the War, 1941 (New Haven, Conn.: 1948), Ch. 1 and 7, 240; Toland, Rising Sun, 147; Herbert Feis, The Road to Pearl Harbor (Princeton, N.J.: 1950), 319.
  834. John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: 1986), 10.
  835. Cited in Toland, Rising Sun, 301; cited in Dower, War without Mercy, 53. 75. Dower, War without Mercy, 42.
  836. Martin Caidin, The Ragged, Rugged Warriors (New York: 1966), 36-37; Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 228.
  837. Clay Blair, Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War against Japan (New York: 1975), 384-86.
  838. Cited in Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 478.
  839. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Two-Ocean War: A Short History of the States Navy in the Second World War (Boston: 1963);
  840. Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 486- 87. 85. Dower, War without Mercy, 40; 19 November 1941, order quoted in John Costello, The Pacific War, 1941-1945 (New York: 1982), 105. 86. Statistics cited in Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 505.
  841. This account is taken from Ronald E. Powaski, March to Armageddon: The United States and the Nuclear Arms Race, 1939 to the Present (New York: 1987), 3-5. 88. Ibid., 12.
  842. Harry S. Truman, Memoirs (Garden City, N.Y.: 1955), vol. 1, Year of Decisions, 419. 90. Truman cited in Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 555.
  843. Cited in Len Giovannitti and Fred Freed, The Decision to Drop the Bomb (New York: 1965), 194-95. Chapter 16 Conclusion: The Era of Nuclear Weapons
  844. Bernard Brodie, ed., The Absolute Weapon: Atomic Power and World Order (New York: 1946), 73, 76.
  845. U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Washington, D.C.: 1946), 18-22.
  846. Gregg Herken, Counsels of War (New York: 1985), 6.
  847. Ibid., 59.
  848. Ibid., 138-39; Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York: 1983), 270- 72.
  849. Brodie and Brodie, From Crossbow to H-Bomb, rev. ed., 294.
  850. Robert S. McNamara, "The Dynamics of Nuclear Strategy," 18 September 1967, U.S. Department of State Bulletin 57 (9 October 1967), 445.
  851. Herken, Counsels of War, 149-50; Kaplan, Wizards of Armageddon, 259-60.
  852. Albert J. Wohlstetter, "Legends of the Strategic Arms Race: Part II," Strategic Review vol. 3, no. 1 (Winter: 1975), 76-77.
  853. Mathew Bunn and Kosta Tsipis, "The Uncertainties of Preemptive Nuclear At- tack," Scientific American 249 (November 1983): 38-47; Powaski, March to Armageddon, 189. 11. Thomas Powers, "Choosing a Strategy for World War III," Atlantic Monthly, November 1982, 98-99.
  854. U.S. Congress, House and Senate Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs and Foreign Relations, Fiscal Year 1986 Arms Control Impact Statements: ICBMs (Washington, D.C.: April 1985), 151-52.
  855. Jack Beatty, "In Harm's Way," The Atlantic Monthly, May 1987, 38-39.
  856. Powers, "Strategy for World War III," 108, 110. 15. Ibid., 98.
  857. Powaski, March to Armageddon, 64; Herbert York, Race to Oblivion: A Partici- pant's View of the Arms Race (New York: 1970), 98-102.
  858. Powaski, March to Armageddon, 224-45.
  859. Time, 6 December, 1982, 30.
  860. McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 377.
  861. U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers: 1986 (Washington, D.C.: 1986), 6; Gavin Kennedy, The Military in the Third World (London: 1974), 174-89.
  862. Gatling, R. J., 233
  863. Gaugemela, Battle of, 10, 62
  864. Gaul(s), 71, 75, 78, 82; and invasion of 390, 71 General Dynamics, 195 general theory of relativity, 309
  865. Geneva Conference on the Reduction and Limi- tation of Armaments of 1932, 275
  866. Geneva Protocol of 1925, 254, 275
  867. Genghis Klan, 31, 85, 98, 99, 100 genocide, 37, 305
  868. Georgia, 100
  869. German(s), 102, 124, 225, 233, 241-69, 275- 78, 279, 280-90
  870. German air doctrine, 277-78
  871. German battle fleet. See High Seas Fleet "German corpse-rendering works," 256
  872. German dreadnought(s), 247
  873. German Empire, 211, 247
  874. German navy's underwater weapons program, 224 German re-armament, rapid but not sustained, 277-78
  875. German-Soviet cooperation to circumvent Ver- sailles, 276
  876. Germany, 82, 130, 137, 141, 142, 144, 169, 182, 202, 206, 211, 221, 243, 254, 274, 275-78, 280-90, 306; naval codes of, 257; naval officers of, 212, 227; navy of, 212, 215, 226, 247-48, 251
  877. Gettysburg, Battle of, 196, 265
  878. Giambelli, 137 giant baboons, 21
  879. Gibbon, Edward, 81
  880. Gibraltar, 187, 247
  881. Gibraltar, siege of, 187
  882. Gilgamesh, 35, 36, 38, 262; epic of, 35, 92 glacis, 120, 161 gladiatorial schools, 79 gladiatorial contests, 73 gladius (Spanish short sword), 68, 69, 79, 133, 156 Glaukos, 47 glide bomb, Japanese kamikaze weapon, 293
  883. Gloire, 194 Gobi desert, 98, 99
  884. Goeben, 247
  885. Gonzales, Antonio, 159
  886. Goodall, Jane, 24
  887. Gorbachev, Mikhail, 308 gorilla, 23
  888. Goring, Herman, 277, 282
  889. Gorshkov, Admiral, 139, 229
  890. Goya, Francisco, 183
  891. Grand Fleet, 229, 248, 249, 250, 257, 258, 259 "grand illusion," 210
  892. Granicus, Battle of, 62, 63
  893. Grant, Ulysses S., 197, 198, 202 grape shot, 146
  894. Grasse, Admiral Francois de, 173 great battleship-building race, 229
  895. Great Britain. See Britain Great Depression, 241
  896. Great Eastern, 194
  897. Great General Staff (Grosser Generalstab), 203, 204, 207, 211
  898. Great Wall of China, 41
  899. Great War, 210, 241-69, 255, 261, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 278, 279, 280, 283, 284, 293, 309 greaves, 50, 61, 72
  900. Greek(s), 33, 45-68, 102; ancient, 115; and weapons innovation, 57-60
  901. Greek city-states, 33, 50, 51, 54, 202
  902. Greek fire, 97, 122
  903. Greek naval warfare, 54, 57, 59
  904. Greek phalanx, 58, 132
  905. Greek war and ritual, 52
  906. Gribeauval, J. B. V. de, 175, 179, 187
  907. Grosser Kurfurst, 217
  908. Grotius, Hugo, 147, 149-50 growth of armies, 133-34, 141, 151, 153 Guadalcanal, Battle of, 292
  909. Guderian, General Heinz, 265, 266, 277, 281, 282, 285
  910. Guignard, de, 155
  911. Gulf War, 4 gun(s), 7, 106, 107, 111, 115, 117, 118, 125, 126, 127, 128, 135, 141, 143, 149, 150, 151, 154, 162, 184, 188, 191, 192, 193, 215, 216, 218, 222, 223, 229, 237, 243, 259; early de- velopment of, 109-10; ease of training with, 111; and first wave of European imperialism, 128-29, 231; and the growth of armies, 133- 34, 141, 189; and increase in war's violence, 118, 143; and involvement of genius, 216; and logistics, 112, 130; and modern European history, 111; and motives of creators, 108-10; participants fall back on tradition, 208-9; and rapidity of development of chemical-based weapons, 216-17; and relationship of infan- try, cavalry, and artillery, 116-17; and tac- tics, 115-16 gun carriages, introduction of, 112 gun-based sailing warship, 106, 139, 140, 162- 63, 164-65; development of, 106, 162-63, 164-65 gunnery theory, 140 gunpowder, 31, 108, 130, 133, 143 gunsmith, 112, 192
  912. Gustav Adolph, 112, 130, 134, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 159, 160, 168, 169, 185; military reforms of, 144-46; and weapons innovation, 146
  913. Gustav Vasa, 144
  914. Guynemer, Georges, 262
  915. Gwent, 103
  916. Jackel, Eberhard, 281
  917. Jaffa slaughter, 178
  918. James, William, 280
  919. Jamieson, Perry D., 197
  920. Jane's Fighting Ships, 226
  921. Janissaries, 126, 127, 180
  922. Japan, 49, 228, 235-37, 239, 274, 290-95, 304; and the adoption of Western weapons, 236-37 Japan Times and Advertiser, 291
  923. Japanese, 228, 235-37, 238, 271, 272, 280, 293, 290-95
  924. Japanese navy. See Imperial Japanese Navy javelin(s), 53, 71, 74
  925. Jean Bart, 228
  926. Jellicoe, John, 224, 248-49, 250, 256, 257, 258, 259; and letter of Oct. 30, 1914, 250, 258 Jemmingen slaughter, 132
  927. Jena-Aurstadt, Battle of, 181, 183, 202, 204
  928. Jericho, 31, 278
  929. Jerusalem, 94, 108
  930. Jeune Ecole, 221
  931. Joffre, Joseph J., 244
  932. John of Nassau, 135
  933. Johnston, Joseph E., 198
  934. Jolly, Clifford, 20
  935. Jomini, Baron de, 82, 121
  936. Jordan, Winthrop, 129
  937. Josephus, 80
  938. Joyeuse, Anne de, 130
  939. Junkers, 276, 277
  940. Junot, General, 182
  941. Jutland, Battle of, 140, 201, 212, 250, 256-59, 290; and Scheer's plan, 256-57 battle turn, 258; battlecruiser action, 257; death ride of the battlecruisers, 258; German destroyer attack, 258; results, 259
  942. Kaga, 273
  943. Kaiser (Caesar), 211
  944. Lutzen, Battle of, 147
  945. Luvaas, Jay, 202
  946. Luvios, F. M. LeTellier, 167
  947. Lyman, Col. Theodore, 198
  948. Lysimachus, 66 "Lysistrata" by Aristophanes, 58
  949. Macclesfield, 103 mace, 31
  950. Macedon, 52, 54, 60, 128, 144; army develop- ment of, 61; phalanx of, 50, 61, 68
  951. Macedonian(s), 60, 62, 63, 67, 68, 145
  952. Machiavelli, Niccolo, 102, 113-14, 121, 128, 130 machine gun, 209, 231, 232-35, 237, 243, 245, 246, 252, 262, 268; reluctance of European armies to adopt, 233; slaughter with and pred- atory imagery of, 234; two men kill 1000 Hehe tribesmen with, 233
  953. Mack, General, 181
  954. Magdeburg, 142, 162
  955. Maginot Line, 279
  956. Magna Carta, 103
  957. Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 212-15, 216, 228, 273; capital ship theory of, 214 mail, 35, 43
  958. Mallory, Stephen, Confederate Naval Secretary, 200
  959. Malta, 127
  960. Malvern Hill, Battle of, 197
  961. Mamluks, 127, 180; and firearms, 126; training of, 126
  962. Manchester, William, 205
  963. Manguds, 99
  964. Manhattan Project, 294 maniples, 72 manorial system, 89
  965. Manstein, General Erich von, 281, 282 mantlets, 76
  966. Marathon, Battle of, 58
  967. Marbot, General, 184
  968. Marcus Aurelius, 81
  969. Marder, Arthur J., 215, 226
  970. Mardonius, 52
  971. Marengo, Battle of, 177
  972. Marignano, 118
  973. Maritz, Jean, 179
  974. Marius, Gaius, 79
  975. Marius' mules, 79
  976. Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of, 174
  977. Marne, Battle of, 245
  978. Marseilles, 54
  979. Marshal, William, 90, 91, 92, 93
  980. Martinet, Lieutenant Colonel, 155
  981. Masada, 63, 81 mass participation warfare, 53 mass rape, 133, 142 Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day Eve, 130
  982. Masujiro, Omura, 236 matchlock, 110, 136, 157, 158, 191
  983. Mattingly, Garrett, 139 Maurice of Nassau, 135, 136, 144; military re- forms of, 135-37
  984. Maurois, Andre, 275
  985. Maxim gun, 11, 233, 234, 235
  986. Maxim, Hiram, 233
  987. Mayer, Arno J., 268
  988. McClellan, George, 198
  989. McNeill, William, 108, 120, 133, 136, 185-86, 192, 193, 206, 254, 304
  990. McWhiney, Grady, 197 mechanization of arms, 190 medieval ship design, 97-98 medieval siege warfare, 96-97
  991. Medinet Habu, 54, 55
  992. Mediterranean, 38, 57, 69, 77, 98, 127, 138, 167, 182, 247 megatonnage, 5 megatons, 298, 299
  993. Mehmet II, 126
  994. Meiji restoration, 236
  995. Meitner, Lise, 294
  996. Menelaos, 46 mercenaries, 45, 64, 102, 104, 116, 118, 125, 129, 130, 132, 135, 136, 142, 144; cavalry of, 130 merchant marine, 214 "merchants of death," 275
  997. Mesolithic, 26
  998. Mesopotamia, 35, 40, 44
  999. Messines Ridge, Battle of, 198-99, 246 metal, 32, 43 metallurgy, 32
  1000. Metternich, Prince Klemens von, 182, 184, 188, 268; and his profession of faith, 184
  1001. Metz, Battle of, 207
  1002. Meuse-Argonne offensive, 264
  1003. Mexican silver, 138-39
  1004. Mexican War, 197
  1005. Mexico, 129
  1006. Michelangelo, 119, 121, 309
  1007. Middle East, 45, 49, 94 "Might of Heroism," 35
  1008. MIKE, 298, 309
  1009. Milan Decrees, 181 military force(s). See armies military history, 35, 148, 259 military profession, 190 military technologies. See weapons technology military tradition, Western, 49-50 military-industrial, 7, 195; as complex, 195
  1010. Milne, Admiral Berkeley, 247 mine(s), 120, 160, 162, 248; naval, 220, 237, 238, 250
  1011. Minie, Claude Etienne, 191, 195
  1012. Minuteman III, 305
  1013. Mirabeau, Compte de, 169
  1014. MIRVs, 299, 302, 307 missile accuracy, 299
  1015. Mitanni, 40 rifled cannon, 140, 196, 209 rifled small arms, 171-72, 179, 191-92, 196, 197, 198 rifling, 121, 125, 158 risk fleet, 227, 230 ritual, 34 ritual wars, 53, 151-52 ritualization of combat, 18
  1016. Roberts, Michael, 146
  1017. Robespierre, Maximilien, 176
  1018. Robin Hood, 103 rocket(s): introduction of as European weapon, 187; technology of, 7, 10 rocket launchers, 122
  1019. Rocroy, Battle of, 182
  1020. Roman(s), 10, 49, 67-68, 115, 127, 156
  1021. Roman army, 69, 74, 281; and attitude toward weapons, 76; Augustan settlement and, 80- 81; cavalry of, 74, 82; cost of, 81; degenera- tion of, 81-83; logistics of, 70; highway sys- tem of, 74-75; post-390 BC reform in, 71-75; predatory nature of, 69-70; recruitment of, 80; training of, 80-81; use of bow in, 74
  1022. Roman Civil War, 80
  1023. Roman legion(s), 72, 91, 94
  1024. Roman phalanx, 70
  1025. Roman Republic, 67, 69
  1026. Rome, 69-83, 85, 138, 306; allies of, 71, 78
  1027. Rommel, General Erwin, 281, 282
  1028. Roosevelt, Franklin, 283, 291
  1029. Roosevelt, Theodore, 214, 225, 228
  1030. Roper, M. K., 24
  1031. Ropp, Theodore, 174, 180, 221, 237
  1032. Ross-Bruner-White thesis, 87-88
  1033. Rostock, 284
  1034. Rostovtseff, M. P., 81
  1035. Rotterdam, 283
  1036. Rozhdestvenski, Admiral, 237
  1037. Ruskin, John, 165
  1038. Russia, 101, 110, 113, 169, 170, 183, 185, 192, 203, 211, 221, 238, 239, 241, 243, 254, 267, 274, 280, 281, 284-88, 290; army of, 168, 183, 232, 285; atomic bomb test in, 303
  1039. Russian(s), 11, 169, 193, 233, 236, 244, 253, 284-88, 306
  1040. Russo-Japanese War, 226, 237, 238, 291
  1041. Rutherford, Ernest, 240
  1042. Scheer, Reinhardt, 212, 256, 257, 258, 259
  1043. Schiller, Frederick, 147
  1044. Schlieffen Plan, 243, 244, 245; and chances of success, 447-48
  1045. Schliemann, Heinrich, 49
  1046. Schmitt, Bernadotte E., 241, 261, 266 schnorkel(s), 283
  1047. Schrader, Gerhard, 289
  1048. Schwartz, Bartholdus, 109, 296 scientific marksmanship (naval), 225
  1049. Scipio Africanus, 78, 79
  1050. Scott, J. D., 193
  1051. Scott, Percy, 224, 225, 226, 260
  1052. Scott's (Winfield) tactical manual, 197 screw propellor, 194
  1053. Scullard, H. H., 70
  1054. Scythians, 61 sea beggars, 138 "Sea Lion," 282, 284 "sea people," 54
  1055. U-9 German submarine, 249
  1056. U-19 German submarine, 224
  1057. U-20 German submarine, 250
  1058. U-24 German submarine, 251
  1059. U-boat(s), 247-48, 249, 250, 257, 260, 261, 282-83 Uborevich, I. P., 276
  1060. Udet, Ernst, 262, 277, 278
  1061. Ulm, 181 ultimate weapon, 200, 201, 226
  1062. Umma, 35 undermining, 96, 120, 133 underwater structural subdivision, 221
  1063. Unger, Richard, 98 ungulate(s), 30, 91, 94 uniforms, 145, 152 Union of the Orders, 71
  1064. U.S. Army, 268; and American aggressiveness in WWI, 268; and growth in American num- bers in WWI, 268
  1065. U.S. battleship-building program of 1916 re- vived, 271; suspended, 260
  1066. U.S. Navy, 212, 215, 217, 222, 224, 225, 259, 283; and General Board of, 271 unity of command, 216 195; evolution of, 6-12; and genetics, 27-29; importance of, 4-5; innovation in, 9, 37, 40, 134-35, 153, 157, 158, 224; human influence on, 11-12; hunting, as stimulus for innova- tion, 125, 171, 189; lack of study of, 4-5; long-range, 22; loudness of, 47, 107, 128, 158, 218, 263, 266, 306; and man's evolu- tion, 19-22; manufacture of. See arms indus- try; of mass destruction, 137, 199; and metal, 32; in nature, 14; as paradigms of develop- ment, 6-12, 263, 266; precocity of, 31; short- range, 22; size of, 6, 47, 67, 107, 218, 248, 266, 306; speed of, 47, 86-87, 107, 218, 263, 306; symmetry of, 8, 9, 11, 17, 44, 47- 48, 49, 57, 78, 82, 91-92, 93, 95, 104-5, 107, 139, 140, 146, 148, 153, 157, 163, 209, 229, 255, 262, 266; technology of, 5, 7, 9, 11, 54, 190, 197, 255; as tools, 20-21; use of, and types of aggression, 15-16
  1067. Weddigen, Otto, 249
  1068. Wedgewood, C. V., 114, 143
  1069. Wehrmacht, 277, 280-81, 282, 285, 286, 287, 288
  1070. Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, 182
  1071. Wells, H. G., 240
  1072. Welsh archers, 102, 103 western front, 210, 242, 243, 252, 254, 261, 262, 263, 264, 269, 277
  1073. Western imperialism, second period of, 231-32, 233-35 wheel lock, 115, 121
  1074. White, Lynn, 87, 90, 92
  1075. Whitehead, Robert, 220 wild boars, 17
  1076. Wilde, Oscar, 213
  1077. Wilhelm I, 205, 211
  1078. William of Orange, 130, 131, 132, 135, 137, 138
  1079. Wilson, Admiral A. K., 223
  1080. Wilson, Charles, 143
  1081. Wilson, Edward O., 15, 17
  1082. Wilson, Woodrow, 250, 260, 271 windage, 158, 160, 163 "window of vulnerability," 302
  1083. Witte, Russian finance minister, 238
  1084. Wittfogel, Karl, 85
  1085. World War I, 190, 208, 239, 241-69, 281; American entry into, 259; Armistice of, 268, 269; casualties of, 242, 246; final German of- fensive in, 267-68; French Army mutiny in, 267; Germans develop weapons for trench warfare in, 252; and machine-gun's role in static warfare, 245-46; myths associated with, 256; moderate in intent, 467-68; and offen- sive alliances, 244; offensive orientation of all sides in, 243-45, 255; and psychological im- pact, 255-56; and race to the sea, 246; weap- ons production in, 254
  1086. World War II, 263, 266-95; casualties of, 270; and casualties of Russians, 286; German cam- paign against Russia, 284-88; German cam- paign against Russia, Directive # 21, 285; German campaign against Russia, predatory nature of, 284, 286; and German lack of mod- ern arms, 280-81; and German submarine, campaign, 282-83; and German weapons' ad- vances at war's end, 289; non-use of chemical weapons in, 289; and origins of British air campaign against Germany, 282-84; and Pa- cific campaign, predatory nature of, 291-94;
  1087. Russians evacuate military-industrial complex in, 286-87; and slaughter of the Jews. See Holocaust; and Soviet weapons production, 287; and Soviets win with superior and nu- merous weapons, 287-88; and U.S. decision to use atomic bomb, 294; U.S. strategic bombing campaign against Japan in, 293-95; and U.S. unrestricted submarine warfare against Japan, 535-36
  1088. Wray, Fawcet, 247
  1089. Wright, Quincy, 30
  1090. Wynter, William, 139
  1091. Xenophon, 45, 49, 62
  1092. Xerxes, 52, 58