COMETS, HISTORICAL RECORDS AND VEDIC LITERATURE (original) (raw)
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Knowledge of comets in ancient Bharatiya traditions archaeology of Rgveda Mahabharata texts
I suggest that the descriptions of skambha (yupa), caṣāla in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and R̥gveda are a realization of dhumaketu ( not merely a smoke banner to mrityu 'death' or associated wit Maruts) but a signifier on the yajña kuṇḍa -- evocation of celestial events observed as comets or meteors. The knowledge of comets of Veda times should NOT be ruled out. Similarly, clear references to comets (graha) in Mahābhārata should be taken into account in evaluating astronomical information obsereved and recorded in the text, as skymaps. This is a continuation of the monograph To pin-down dates of Bhāratīya Itihāsa, Astronomy provides sky maps and Iconography defines comet metaphors of Rāhu & Ketu https://tinyurl.com/yaxxnylw This note provides archaeological evidences related to Bhāratīya traditions of performance of yajña, archaeology of R̥gveda & Mahābhārata texts. Patrick Das Gupta, 2017, Comets, historical records and vedic literature [quote]Abstract: Because of weak surface gravity, forms of comets approaching the Sun may possibly assume strange shapes depending on factors like rotation, structure and composition of the comet as well as solar wind pattern. It is therefore possible that our ancestors could have described some comets to be as `heavenly tree' or as `sky serpent'. This article proposes few conjectures in which strange events associated with the sky, as described in ancient Sanskrit texts, were actually apparitions of comets of antiquity.[unquote] This work was presented in the International Conference on Oriental Astronomy held at IISER, Pune (India) during November, 2016 https://arxiv.org/abs/1704.00722 Mirror: https://www.academia.edu/32035026/COMETS\_HISTORICAL\_RECORDS\_AND\_VEDIC\_LITERATURE Excerpt: [quote]A verse in book one of Rigveda mentions a cosmic tree with rope-like aerial roots held up in the sky. Such an imagery might have ensued from the appearance of a comet having `tree stem' like tail, with branched out portions resembling aerial roots. nterestingly enough, a comet referred to as `heavenly tree' was seen in 162 BC, as reported by old Chinese records. Because of weak surface gravity, cometary appendages may possibly assume strange shapes depending on factors like rotation, structure and composition of the comet as well as solar wind pattern. Varahamihira and Ballala Sena listed several comets having strange forms as reported originally by ancient seers such as Parashara, Vriddha Garga, Narada and Garga. Mahabharata speaks of a mortal king Nahusha who ruled the heavens when Indra, king of gods, went into hiding. Nahusha became luminous and egoistic after absorbing radiance from gods and seers. When he kicked Agastya (southern star Canopus), the latter cursed him to become a serpent and fall from the sky. We posit arguments to surmise that this Mahabharata lore is a mythical recounting of a cometary event wherein a comet crossed Ursa Major, moved southwards with an elongated tail in the direction of Canopus and eventually went out of sight. In order to check whether such a conjecture holds water, a preliminary list of comets (that could have or did come close to Canopus) drawn from various historical records is presented and discussed.[unquote] See: Comets in Indian scriptures India, by Patrick Dasgupta https://www.academia.edu/9535459/Comets\_in\_ancient\_India [quote]Abstract: The Indo-aryans of ancient India observed stars and constellations for ascertaining auspicious times in order to conduct sacri cial rites ordained by vedas. It is but natural that they would have recounted in the vedic texts about comets. In Rigveda ( 1700 - 1500 BC) and Atharvaveda ( 1150 BC), there are references to dhumaketus and ketus, which stand for comets in Sanskrit. Rigveda mentions a g tree with roots held up in the sky (Parpola 2009, 2010). Could it have been inspired by the hirsute appearance of a comet's tail? Similarly, could `Ketu' (the torso or the tail part of Rahu) be a Dravidian loan word, since `kottu', an old Tamil word, is associated with scorpion's sting and top tuft of hair? Varahamihira in 550 AD and Ballal Sena ( 1100 - 1200 AD) have described a large number of comets recorded by ancient seers such as Parashara, Vriddha Garga, Narada, Garga, etc. In this article, I conjecture that an episode narrated in Mahabharata of a radiant king, Nahusha, ruling the heavens, and later turning into a serpent after he had kicked the seer Agastya (also the star Canopus), is a mythological retelling of a cometary event.[unquote] See also: https://www.scribd.com/document/339704023/Journal-of-Astronomical-History-and-Heritage-vol-1 This refers to a Journal started in 1998 titled Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. (JAHH). This journal has some interesting articles related to comets. For e.g., ‘The historical investigation of cometry Brightness’ by David W. Hughes (JAHH,Vol.1, No.2, Dec. 1998, p.133) There is an interesting article by Rajesh Kocchar on Rahu and Ketu in mythological and “astronomological” contexts in : Indian Journal of History of Science, 2010,Vol. 45, No. 2 ( June), pp.287-297. This is mirrored at: https://www.academia.edu/767173/Rahu\_and\_Ketu\_in\_mythological\_and\_astronomological\_contexts Comments I find the papers by Patrick Dasgupta are an effective refutation of the observations made by Rajesh Kocchar who seeks to relate the knowledge about comets (e.g., Rāhu and Ketu) only to the periods of the Common Era. Kocchar suggests these Common Era dates based on iconographical evidences and interpretation of some ancient texts. Kocchar's views can be summarised as follows, excerpted from his article of 2010 cited above: “The Rgveda does not know of Rahu. The Rgveda does not know of Rahu… Dikshit (1896, Vol. 1, p. 57) while translating a passage from the Rgveda renders Svarbhanu as Rahu and goes on to give its meaning as the lunar ascending node… Atharvaveda (13.16-24) employs Ketu to mean ray of light. These nine verses are taken from Rgveda (1.50.1-9) in the same order and more or less in the same form. They are also found “in one or more other Vedic texts” (Whitney 1905, Vol.2, p.722). More typically Ketu meant combination of fire and smoke. The Atharvaveda passage (19.9.10) quoted above refers to Dhumaketu as an epithet of mrtyu [death]. It either means a comet or literally as “smoke-bannered” to the smoke rising from a funeral pyre (Whitney 1905,Vol. 2, p. 914). Atharvaveda (11.10.1-2, 7) uses Ketu in the plural, as arunah ketavah [ruddy Ketus]. Here the reference seems to be to comets or meteors. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita, composed in 6th century CE but containing much older material, quotes a still earlier astronomer Garga on a class of 77 comets, called Aruna, which are dark red in colour (Bhat 1981,Vol. 1, p.138)… . As mentioned earlier, it is Varahamihira’s other text Brihajjataka which twins Ketu with Rahu as the eclipse-causing shadow planets, introducing the concept of navagraha. Ketu was now given a brand new identity; the torso which had been lying lifeless after the detachment of the Rahu head was now resurrected and named Ketu… We have argued that inclusion of the demon Rahu in the list of mathematically tractable planets took place after 499CE. Support for this conclusion comes from iconographic data. The “ first surviving depiction of Rahu occurs in a relief of the ‘Churning of the Ocean’ carved over the façade of the doorway of cave-temple number nineteen at Udayagiri in the Vidisha district of Madhya Pradesh, which can be dated to ca. A.D.430-450. Earliest known representations of Rahu as a member of the planetary deities are those on two stone lintels, 100cm by 20cm, originally from the villages of Nachna and Kuthara in the Panna district in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh, most likely sculpted during the reign of the Uccakalpa king Jayanatha (r. ca. A.D.490-510)” ( Markel 1990, pp.11-13). If the assigned dates are correct, it is remarkable that Rahu’s planetization occurred within a decade of Aryabhata’s theory. Ketu as a planetary deity appears in about 600 CE or a little later, in Uttar Pradesh. In the eastern state of Orissa, Ketu was not counted in until the tenth century, which thus had only eight grahas till then (Markel 1990, p.21). One wonders whether it was from Orissa that Rahu as Yahu travelled to Burma as one of the eight nats (spirits).” Kocchar seems to infer that the references in ancient texts (e.g. R̥gveda or Mahābhārata) are 'mythological' by coining a term: 'astronological', combing astronomy and mythology. I submit that Kocchar's views are erroneous and misinterpret the semantics of the terms, graha, Rāhu and Ketu in these texts. Arunaketu is an Atharvaveda reference: अरुण्/आः केत्/अवः , " red apparitions " , a class of spirits (a kind of sacrificial fire is called after them आरुणकेतुक q.v.) AV. xi , 10 , 1 f. and 7 TA1r. MBh. xii , 26 , 7. This reference in AV is relatable to ketu in R̥gveda references interpreted as: m. (fr. √4. चित्) , bright appearance , clearness , brightness (often pl. , " rays of light ") RV. VS. AV. (Monier-Williams)
The Indo-aryans of ancient India observed stars and constellations for ascertaining auspicious times in order to conduct sacrificial rites ordained by vedas. It is but natural that they would have recounted in the vedic texts about comets. In Rigveda ($\sim $ 1700 - 1500 BC) and Atharvaveda ($\sim $ 1150 BC), there are references to dhumaketus and ketus, which stand for comets in Sanskrit. Rigveda mentions a fig tree with roots held up in the sky (Parpola 2009, 2010). Could it have been inspired by the hirsute appearance of a comet's tail? Similarly, could `Ketu' (the torso or the tail part of Rahu) be a Dravidian loan word, since `kottu', an old Tamil word, is associated with scorpion's sting and top tuft of hair? Varahamihira in 550 AD and Ballal Sena ($\sim $ 1100 - 1200 AD) have described a large number of comets recorded by ancient seers such as Parashara, Vriddha Garga, Narada, Garga, etc. In this article, I conjecture that an episode narrated in Mahabharata of a radiant king, Nahusha, ruling the heavens, and later turning into a serpent after he had kicked the seer Agastya (also the star Canopus), is a mythological retelling of a cometary event.
Knowledge of comets in Bharatiya tradition traced to Rgveda akhyana of svarbhanu RV 5 40
This is an addendum to: https://tinyurl.com/yc6k6rpn Knowledge of comets in ancient Bhāratīya traditions, archaeology of R̥gveda & Mahābhārata texts What Kocchar refers to as astronomical mythology in ancient texts may in fact be metaphorical narratives to explain a celestial event. It is accepted in historical studies related to ancient astronomy that comets were indeed observed in ancient times and documented. In a short communication, Prof. RN Iyengar details comet observations in ancient India (in: Journal of Geological Society of India, Vol. 67, March 2006): "Abstract: A brief review of the ancient prose text of Para¯s´ara, referring to comets, as transmitted by later non-religious Sanskrit literature is presented. The information passed on appears to belong to 2nd millennium BC or earlier. A sequence of 26 comets with names and purported effects are given. The form of each comet sometimes with its position in the sky is presented vividly. A year number, mentioned as the time interval between each appearance, is also given. The total period covered adds to about 1300 years. The first comet is said to have appeared in the era of the Floods. This would date the Floods to about 2500-2700 BC. Whether this has any historical importance needs to be further investigated. The names of many comets correspond with names of Vedic deities. This raises the possibility of comet sightings being alluded to in the Rig Veda." https://www.scribd.com/document/7001453/Comet-Observation-in-Ancient-India-RN-Iyengar-JGSI See: Santosh Kumar,S.and R.Rengaiyan, 2014, Vedic mythology of solar eclipse and its scientific validation, in: Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge,Vol.13 (4), October 2014, pp. 716-724 http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/29523/1/IJTK%2013%284%29%20716-724.pdf The article seeks to differentiate an eclipse event in four stages and find changes in oceanic pH during the eclipse. Sayana/Wilson translation 5.040.01 Come, Indra, (to our sacrifice); drink, lord of the Soma, of the juice expressed by the stones; showerer (of benefits), utter destroyer of Vr.tra, (come) with the showering (Maruts). 5.040.02 The stone is the showerer, the inebriation is the showerer, this effused Soma is the showerer; showerer (of benefits), Indra, utter destroyer of Vr.tra, come with the showering (Maruts). [The showerer: either of the Soma juice, or the benefits derivable from offering it; here there is a play on the word vr.s.a_]. 5.040.03 Effusing the libation, I invoke you, the showerer (of benefits), for your marvellous protections; showerer (of benefits), Indra, utter destroyer of Vr.tra, come with the showering (Maruts). 5.040.04 May the accepter of the spiritless libation, the wilder of the thunderbolt, the showerer (of benefits), the overcomer of quick- (flying foes), the mighty, the monarch, the slayer of Vr.tra, the drinker of the Soma, having harnessed his horses, come down (to us); may Indra be exhilarated at the mid-day sacrifice. [Accepter of the spiritless libation: r.ji_s.in = the possessor or ruler of the r.ji_s.a, here explained as gatasa_ra somarasa, or that which ahs been offered at the morning and midday ceremonies, and of which the residue is now presented at the evening sacrifice]. 5.040.05 When, Su_rya, the son of the Asura Svarbha_nu, overspread you with darkness, the worlds were beheld like one bewildered knowing not his place. [Svarbha_nu: is a name of ra_hu, the personified ascending node, the causer of an eclipse; he was a son of kas'yapa, by Danu, the mother of the Da_navas or asuras; another genealogy makes him the son of Vipraciti, by Sim.hika_, the sister of Hiran.yakas'ipu]. 5.040.06 When, Indra, you were dissipating those illusions of Svarbha_nu which were spread below the sun, then Atri, by his fourth sacred prayer, discovered the sun concealed by the darkness impeding his functions. [i.e., by the four stanzas of this su_kta from the fifth to the eighth]. 5.040.07 Su_rya speaks: Let not the violator, Atri, through hunger, swallow with fearful (darkness) me who am yours; you are Mitra, whose wealth is truth; do you and the royal Varun.a both protect me. 5.040.08 Then the Brahman, (Atri), applying the stones together, propitiating the gods with praise, and adoring them with reverence, placed the eye of Su_rya in the sky; he dispersed the delusions of Svarbha_nu. 5.040.09 The sun, whom the Asura, Svarbha_nu, had enveloped with darkness, the sons of Atri subsequently recovered; no others were able (to effect his release). RV V.40 (Griffith translation) 1. COME thou to what the stones have pressed, drink rāhú m. ʻ name of a demon ʼ AV.Pa. Pk. rāhu -- m.; Bi. rāh ʻ a demon worshipped by Ḍoms and Dusādhs ʼ; Si. rā ʻ demon, ghost ʼ.(CDIAL 10726) Paswan (meaning Sentinel or Defender or Worthy of praise) is a community in India. They are also known as Dusadh in Bihar. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paswan Doms (Bengali: ডোম)are a Bengali Hindu caste found in large numbers in Birbhum, Bankura and other districts in the western fringe of the Indian state of West Bengal.[citation needed] Traditionally, Doms were basket-makers, cultivators, labourers and drummers; their wives serving as midwives. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doms The Domba or Dom (Sanskrit ḍoma, dialectally also Domaki, Dombo, Domra, Domaka, Dombar, Dombari and variants) are an ethnic group, or groups, scattered across India. In North India, the preferred self-designation is Dom.[citation needed] The form ḍomba is Prakrit, while ḍoma and ḍumba are encountered in Kashmiri Sanskrit texts. Derived from ḍoma is ḍomaki, the name of a language spoken in a small enclave in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. It is also believed that the Dom or Domi people of the Middle East, in addition to the Roma of Europe,[1][need quotation to verify] are descendants of Domba, who were taken, or travelled, to Sassanid Persia as servants and musicians.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domba Gypsy ʼ, pal. dōm ʻ a Nuri Gypsy ʼ, arm. as. (Boša) lom ʻ a Gypsy ʼ, pers. damini ʻ woman ʼ; Ḍ. ḍōm (pl. °ma) ʻ a Ḍom ʼ; Paš. ḍōmb ʻ barber ʼ; Kho. (Lor.) ḍom ʻ musician, bandsman ʼ; Sh. ḍom ʻ a Ḍom ʼ, K. ḍūmb, ḍūmm., ḍūmbiñ f.; S. ḍ̠ūmu m., ḍūmṛī f. ʻ caste of wandering musicians ʼ, L. ḍūm m., ḍūmṇī f., (Ju.) ḍ̠om m., ḍ̠omṇī, ḍomṛī f., mult. ḍōm m., ḍōmṇī f., awāṇ. naṭ -- ḍūm ʻ menials ʼ; P. ḍūm, ḍomrā m., ḍūmṇī f. ʻ strolling musician ʼ, ḍūmṇā m. ʻ a caste of basket -- makers ʼ; WPah. ḍum ʻ a very low -- caste blackskinned fellow ʼ; Ku. ḍūm m., ḍūmaṇ f. ʻ an aboriginal hill tribe ʼ; N. ḍum ʻ a low caste ʼ; A. ḍom m. ʻ fisherman ʼ, ḍumini f.; B. ḍom, ḍam m. ʻ a Ḍom ʼ, ḍumni f. (OB. ḍombī); Or. ḍoma m., °aṇī f., ḍuma, °aṇī, ḍamba, ḍama, °aṇī ʻ a low caste who weave baskets and sound drums ʼ; Bhoj. ḍōm ʻ a low caste of musicians ʼ, H. ḍomb, ḍom, ḍomṛā, ḍumār m., ḍomnī f., OMarw. ḍūma m., ḍūmaṛī f., M. ḍõb, ḍom m. -- Deriv. Gy. wel. romanō adj. (f. °nī) ʻ Gypsy ʼ romanō rai m. ʻ Gypsy gentleman ʼ, °nī čib f. ʻ Gypsy language ʼ.Addenda: ḍōmba -- : Gy.eur. rom m., romni f. esp. ʻ Gypsy man or woman ʼ; WPah.kṭg. ḍōm m. ʻ member of a low caste of musicians ʼ, ḍv̄m m.; Garh. ḍom ʻ an untouchable ʼ. †*ḍōmbādhāna -- . *ḍōmbakuṭaka ʻ a Ḍom's hut ʼ. [ḍōmba -- , kuṭī -- ]Ku. ḍumauṛo ʻ habitation of the Ḍoms ʼ.*ḍōmbadhāna -- , or *ḍōmbādhāna -- , ʻ Ḍom settlement ʼ. [*ḍōmba -- , dhāˊna -- or ādhāˊna -- ]Ku. ḍumāṇo ʻ Ḍom settlement ʼ.Addenda: *ḍōmbadhāna -- or †*ḍōmbādhāna -- .Garh. ḍumāṇu ʻ part of a village where Ḍoms live ʼ.ḍōmba m. ʻ man of low caste living by singing and music ʼ Kathās., ḍōma -- m. lex., ḍōmbinī -- f. [Connected with Mu. words for ʻ drum ʼ PMWS 87, EWA i 464 with lit.]Pk. ḍoṁba -- , ḍuṁba -- , ḍoṁbilaya -- m.; Gy. eur. rom m. ʻ man, husband ʼ, romni f. ʻ woman, wife ʼ, SEeur. i̦om ʻ a (CDIAL 5570 to 5572) "It seems likely that some groups in the original supporting population belonged to a collection of people called Domba in the plural (singular Dom ‘man,’) which then meant, “The People” or “Human Beings.” Each of these small Rajput kingdoms was ruled by a thakur, or petty king and collectively, the kings served an elected king who was the supreme ruler. Thakur in its variant form of thagar exists in Romani in some dialects today meaning ‘ king’ or ‘leader.’..It is also possible that the so-called “Lom Gypsies” who inhabit Armenia today may be descended from the Romani families who remained behind although their Lomavren linguistic register which now contains only root elements of Indo-Aryan words does not prove or disprove this conclusively...Indian Dom were historically a wandering cast of musicians and entertainers of many ethnic and religious origins and certainly not a “race”(sic). They are said to predate the arrival of the Indo-Europeans in India but later Dom groups have included Hindu, Pagan and Muslim members. Furthermore, Dom are described as following many trades such as blacksmith, musician, peddler, farmer, etc. " https://kopachi.com/articles/a-new-look-at-our-romani-origins-and-diaspora-by-ronald-lee/ I suggest that the descriptions of skambha (yupa), caṣāla in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and R̥gveda are a realization of dhumaketu ( not merely a smoke banner to mrityu 'death' or associated wit Maruts) but a signifier on the yajña kuṇḍa -- evocation of celestial events observed as comets or meteors. The knowledge of comets of Veda times should NOT be ruled out. Similarly, clear references to comets (graha) in Mahābhārata should be taken into account in evaluating astronomical information obsereved and recorded in the text, as skymaps.
--grahau tāmrāruṇa śikhau prajvalantāv iva sthitau (MBh 6.3.24) The description by Vyāsa in the following skymap observations; clearly refers to grahau 'two comets' (sons of ) bṛhaspatiśanaiścarau. It will be an absurdity to find them as planets in the context of the dates related to the statement. The date is 3067 BCE. 24 grahau tāmrāruṇa śikhau prajvalantāv iva sthitau saptarṣīṇām udārāṇāṃ samavacchādya vai prabhām 25 saṃvatsarasthāyinau ca grahau prajvalitāv ubhau viśākhayoḥ samīpasthau bṛhaspatiśanaiścarau (MBh. 6.3.24,25) This is Kisari Mohan Ganguly translation (elucidation): The effulgence of the constellation known by the name of the seven high-souled Rishis, hath been dimmed. Those two blazing planets, viz., Vrihaspati and Sani, having approached the constellation called Visakha, have become stationary there for a whole year. Three lunations twice meeting together in course of the same lunar fortnight, the duration of the latter is shortened by two days. On the thirteenth day therefore, from the first lunation, according as it is the day of the full moon or the new moon, the moon and the sun are afflicted by Rahu. Such strange eclipses, both lunar and solar, forebode a great slaughter. (This sloka is omitted in many editions, though it is certainly genuine. I have rendered it very freely, as otherwise it would be unintelligible. The fact is, three lunations twice meeting together in course of the same lunar fortnight is very rare. The lunar-fortnight (Paksha) being then reduced by two days, the day of full-moon or that of new moon, instead of being (as usual) the fifteenth day from the first lunation becomes the thirteenth day. Lunar-eclipses always occur on days of the full-moon, while solar-eclipses on those of the new moon. Such eclipses, therefore, occurring on days removed from the days of the first lunation by thirteen instead of (as usual) fifteen days, are very extraordinary occurrences.) All the quarters of the earth, being overwhelmed by showers of dust, look inauspicious. Fierce clouds, portentous of danger, drop bloody showers during the night. Rahu of fierce deeds is also, O monarch, afflicting the constellation Kirtika. Rough winds, portending fierce danger, are constantly blowing. All these beget a war characterised by many sad incidents. In Narahari Achar's explanation for the word 'planets' read 'comets' because they are described to be 'blazing' and with tāmrāruṇa śikhau. No planet has 'hairs', only comets have; consistent with the meaning in Greek. The word 'comet' comes from the ancient Greek word 'kometes, meaning 'long haired star'. Kalyan Excerpts from Fascinating Planets -- German Aerospace Center Comets are a rare celestial spectacle. They only appear in the sky a few times over the course of a human life. And yet anyone who has seen a comet will likely never forget such an astronomical event. The myth of comets Comets are called hairy stars, from the Ancient Greek word κόμη (kómē), meaning a head of hair. They are rare, yet impressive, occasionally fascinating phenomena in the sky. Unlike the familiar Moon and the planets passing in front of the band of the Milky Way, comets are characterised by a diffuse point of light from which the tail they are famous for emanates. So it was without a doubt that a greater significance would be placed on comets. In the history of humanity, they have generally been associated with approaching calamity. Their unpredictable appearances embodied disruption in the divine order of the world. So it is no wonder that our ancestors saw something mystical in comets – harbingers of war and catastrophe, plagues, famine and revolution. They symbolised unpredictability and sinisterness. This applied to almost every culture, even in the oldest significant document on a comet in Western civilisation, dating back to the twelfth century BC, when Nebuchadnezzar I reigned in Babylon: "When a comet reaches the path of the Sun, Gan-ba will be diminished; an uproar will happen twice." But even in the Age of Enlightenment, the comet’s tail was considered to be a divine rod of discipline in many places, associated with punishment and penance. Today, of course, people tend to have more positive thoughts in the event of the rare, exciting appearance of a comet. The picture that they create in the night sky is special – a sign of the diversity of our cosmic home and of its beauty.
Ancient Indian Astronomy in Vedic Texts
Astronomy in popular perception is about stars, planets, sun, moon, eclipses, comets, meteorites and associated observable phenomena. Something of all of these was known to our ancients though not in the same form and detail as it is available now. In the context of India, the question is what was known, in what detail and when. For the siddhānta period, roughly starting with the Common Era, (CE) such questions have been fairly well answered. This has been possible since several texts of the period, specifically devoted to astronomy are available for systematic study. But for the more ancient period we have no exclusive texts other than Lagadha’s Vedānga Jyotiṣa (c 1400 BCE) which is a calendar with no reference to eclipses or planets. Hence when one talks of Vedic Times several precautions are necessary..... In the following articles we investigate briefly how comets, meteorites, and eclipses were experienced and pictured in the Vedic texts. Over a long period of time the effect of precession was also felt as with the loss of importance for the constellation Śiśumāra (Draco) and shifting of the Pole Star Dhruva. The astral descriptions and the religious lore behind the above astronomical entities provided the inspiration for the development of observational and mathematical astronomy in India. Some portion of the present study has appeared in the Indian Journal of History of Science (2005, 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012) in the form of papers. However, considerable new information, beyond the published material, can be found in the following pages
In the context of over 150 astronomical references (which provide unambiguous skymaps), Mahābhārata is a unique text in the history of civilizations to date historical events with precision. No such documented history exists anywhere else in the world. Astronomy and Iconography evidences from Bhāratīya Itihāsa reconcile the semantics of graha 'planet' as distinct from graha 'comet, planet family, asteroid'. Western explanations of planets generally refer to seven major planets (e.g. the names of the week of 7 days). Bhāratīya Itihāsa has consistenly presented references to nine planets (e.g. ading Rāhu & Ketu to the 7 major planets). What do Rāhu & Ketu signify in relation to celestial events which are observable on skymaps? I submit that the cultural metaphor is clearly traceable to ancient texts which distinguish Rāhu & Ketu as graha, 'comets/planet family/asteroid) and other seven graha, 'planets, e.g. Sun, Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, etc.'. The main contentions among astronomers about the interpretation of dates described for Mahābhārata events are resolved by an understanding of two clear semantic distinctions of the word, graha. Graha refers to a planet. Graha also refers to a planet's son of family which is called a comet/asteroid. The iconographic signifiers of Rāhu & Ketu from many temples of Bhāratīya Itihāsa presented in this monograph emphasise this distinction in semantics of the word, graha. Rāhu is a metaphor for 'seizing' as shown on these sculptural friezes. Rahu 'seizes' the 'crescent moon' by his palms. Ketu is a metaphor for 'seizing' as shown on these sculptural friezes ligturing the body of a 'seizing or coiling' serpent which frames the body. For example, some references in Mahābhārata clearly refer to comets, naming them as graha -- a term which is always used to signify planets. In the context of cultural foundations of Bhāratīya Itihāsa, right from Veda texts, Rāhu & Ketu have been identified as the eighth and ninth graha. ग्रह m. the number " nine "; m. the place of a planet in the fixed zodiac W.; m. a planet (as seizing or influencing the destinies of men in a supernatural manner ; sometimes 5 are enumerated , viz. Mars , Mercury , Jupiter , Venus , and Saturn MBh. vi , 4566 f. R. i , 19 , 2 Ragh. iii , 13 &c ; also 7 i.e. the preceding with राहु and केतु MBh. vii , 5636 ; also 9 i.e. the sun [cf. S3Br. iv , 6 , 5 , 1 and 5 MBh. xiii , 913 ; xiv , 1175] and moon with the 7 preceding Ya1jn5. i , 295 MBh. iv , 48 VarBr2S. ; also the polar star is called a ग्रह , Garg. ?? ( Jyot. 5 Sch.) ; the planets are either auspicious शुभ- , सद्- , or inauspicious क्रूर- , पाप- VarBr2S. ; with जैनs they constitute one of the 5 classes of the ज्योतिष्कs); m. seizure of the sun and moon , eclipse AV. xix , 9 , 7 and 10 VarBr2S. Graha as the place of a planet in the fixed zodiac is explained in the context of Rāhu & Ketu, as comets associated with the other 7 planets. To emphasize that the word 'graha' refers to a comet is seen in the context of an expression in Mahābhārata: ‘grahau tamrarunashikhau prajvalitau’ (MBh. VI.3.24)(Trans. The two graha-s blazing with red coppery hair'. Thus, the metaphor of 'red coppery hair' explains that graha refers to grahaputra, a comet and NOT to one of the seven planets. See detailed exposition provided by Prof.Narahari Achar at http://www.draupaditrust.org/content/International%20con/Mahabharata/Prof%20B.%20N.%20Narahari%20Achar.pdf Achar notes that the word comet itself is semantically derived from a Greek word for 'hair'. The fine distinction between graha 'planet' and graha 'comet' is consistent with the explanation in modern astronomy of comets whose aphelia lie within, say, Planet Jupiter’s orbit; referring to such coments as belonging to ‘Jupiter’s family’. Mahābhārata deploys 12 unique terms to distinguish the graha 'planet' from graha 'comet': śveta, dhūmaketu, mahāgraha, paruṣa, p āvaka, dh ūma, lohitānga, tīvra, pāvakaprabha, yama, ghora, dhruvaketu. These 12 unique terms are also affirmed by Varāhamihira in Br̥hatsamhitā. Graha (which can refer in context to a planet or a comet/asteroid) means 'seizing'. On the astronomical skymaps, both planets and comets/asteroids 'seize' objects which signify events related to cosmic phenomena. Thus, the metaphor of an eclipse is explained as an event of 'seizing' by graha. The semantic framework of graha is clearly related to the metaphor of 'seizing' noticed in cosmic phenomena and also observed in the context of human medical conditions (with a metaphor to signify ailments as the result of such 'seizing', e.g. graha in one semantic stream means 'm. N. of particular evil demons or spirits who seize or exercise a bad influence on the body and mind of man (causing insanity &c ; it falls within the province of medical science to expel these demons ; those who esp. seize children and cause convulsions &c are divided into 9 classes according to the number of planets Sus3r. ) MBh. &c.' Rameśvara temple is located 2 kms. from Lingaraja temple in Bhubaneśvar. The entranceof the Ramesvara temple has a Navagraha panel on the top. The door jamb has the small relief images of Dwarapalas along with the rivers Ganga and Yamuna. The temple was built ca. 12th cent. CE by Somavamśi kings. http://indiancolumbus.blogspot.com/2015/11/ramesvara.html Clockwise from top - 1.Navagraha/Dasavatara panel 2.Panel detail 3.Kalpalata panel. Western wall of dargah. "Located some 70 km to the North of Calcutta (Kolkata), in the town of Tribeni, the Zafar Khan Ghazi Masjid is not just the oldest mosque of Bengal, it is the oldest standing Islamic structure of any kind. The complex consists of a mosque and a dargah, with several tombs and it remains an active religious site...The material available to us comes primarily from two sources. An Assistant Professor at the Calcutta Madrassah, H. Blochman’s translations of the Arabic plaques in the complex were published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society in 1870, which was preceded by “An Account of the Temple of Tribeni near Hugli”, written by a civil servant, D. Money, which appeared in the Journal of the Asiatic Society in May, 1847. " Source: http://double-dolphin.blogspot.in/2016/06/zafar-khan-ghazi-masjid-bengals-oldest-mosque-tribeni-hooghly.html Surya with Retinue, 9th century India: Uttar Pradesh, 800-899 Sandstone Surya is accompanied by his large retinue, which includes his 2 wives, Rajni & Nikshubha, 2 smaller male attendants, Dandi & Pingala, along with other celestial figures. A female figure, perhaps the earth goddess Bhudevi, stands between his feet in a spot usually reserved for his charioteer, Aruna, which suggests that this sculpture was made in Uttar Pradesh. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/475692779372836478/ Sûrya - Temple de Sûrya à Konarak (Orissa, Inde) Navagraha - chapelle secondaire du temple de Sûrya à Konarak (Orissa) : Shani (Saturne), Râhu (le démon des éclipses), et Ketu (la personnification des comètes) Sûrya (Soleil), Chandra (Lune), Mangala (Mars) Navagraha au linteau de la cella du temple de Mukteshvara, Bhubaneshvar (Orissa) Linteau aux Navagraha, temple de Bhubaneshvar (Orissa) Panneau représentant quatre graha (Indian Museum, Calcutta) Panneau représentant des graha (anciennement huit) Panneau représentant des graha (anciennement huit) : détail de Râhu Rahu Râhu - temple de Sûrya à Konarak (Orissa) Linteau associant les Navagraha avec les Dix Avatars de Vishnu (partie représentant la fin des Navagraha et le début des Dix Avatars) Linteau associant les Navagraha avec les Dix Avatars de Vishnu (partie représentant Ganesha et les Navagraha) Linteau associant les Navagraha avec les Dix Avatars de Vishnu (partie représentant les Dix Avatars) Linteau associant les Navagraha avec les Dix Avatars de Vishnu (partie représentant les Navagraha) Panneau représentant des graha : détail de Brihaspati (Jupiter), Shukra (Vénus), Shani (Saturne) Sûrya, Chandra (la Lune), Mangala (Mars), et un personnage non identifié Brihaspati (Jupiter), Shukra (Vénus), Shani (Saturne), Râhu (démon des éclipses), Ketu (personnification des comètes) Source: http://picssr.com/photos/25203671@N04/
Archaeo-astronomy and Ancient Indian Chronology
Investigation of the astronomical content of ancient Vedic texts along with historically constrained texts of the first and second millennium CE shows that the sky pictures of the most ancient period get contrasted with later ones due to the phenomenon of precession of earth’s rotational axis. Most important among such observations is the fixed Pole Star, named Abhaya-Dhruva at the tail end of the constellation known as Śiśumāra (whale or dolphin) described in the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (II.19) of the Kṛṣṇa-yajurveda branch. With passage of time, in the Maitrāyaṇīya Āraṇyaka, a question arises, why even Dhruva moves. The Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa declares that star Dhruva rotates in the same position, like the nave of a potter’s wheel. This and a few other Purāṇas extol Dhruva as the fourteenth star on the tail of the constellation Śiśumara, as in the Vedic text. Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) mentions that devout Hindus, during his time, believed their Pole Star to be in the constellation that looks like an aquatic animal called, Śiśumāra. This paper updates my previous work published in IJHS-2011.
Was the bright comet of 1742 discovered from India?
Current science
In this note, I look into the record of a comet in the writings of an 18th century Indian historian Sayyid Muh ammad 'Alī al-H usaini, that he says appeared in 1154 AH (1741–42). No astronomical detail of the observation is given. The circumstances suggest him to be an independent discoverer of the bright comet of 1742, now designated C/1742 C1. Comets, meteors and earthquakes are unpredictable natural phenomena that, together with eclipses, were perceived in various cultures as evil and a threat to the ruler. So, a tradition of tracking such phenomena existed. Records of a number of such events can be found in well-known Indo-Persian texts also. An 18th century Persian scholar and political historian who is astronomically relevant is Sayyid Muh ammad 'Alī ibn Muh ammad S ādiq al-H usaini who in 1759–60 wrote a history of the Timur dynasty, Tārīkh-i Rāh at Afzā, covering the period 1359– 1759. From his authorship of another book, we learn that he had been associated w...
2011
The ancient intellectual tradition of India holds that the epic Mahabharata reports part of national history. However, historicity of key personalities like Krsna has depended more on an unbroken tradition, rather than on archaeological evidences. The single most important physical source available for present day study is the text of Mahabharata itself. It is unlikely that later reciters and copyists of the epic would have tampered with descriptions of natural phenomena like eclipses, even though transcription and transmission errors cannot be ruled out. Hence, such celestial observations would become the most important physical evidences if they can be scientifically investigated and dated. Planetarium softwares are powerful tools for computer-based searching of thousands of possibilities and for sifting through obscure texts on celestial events. Such an exercise in archaeo-astronomy leads us to the conclusion that the eclipses and planetary observations of Mahabharata should belo...